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Index
Cheryl Finley
Description: Committed to Memory: The Art of the Slave Ship Icon
Committed to Memory: The Art of the Slave Ship Icon
Index
Author
Cheryl Finley
PublisherPrinceton University Press
CopyrightCopyright © 2018 by Princeton University Press
Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-21715
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Index
abolition: in Brazil, 98, 106–7
British commemoration of, 1–5, 17, 254, 256
international law and, 87, 270n30, 279n22
merchant and planter lobby and opposition to, 73–74
motions and bills introduced in pursuit of, 17, 35, 57, 72–74, 76, 84, 88
property rights as barrier to, 35
of slavery, 25, 27–28, 42–47, 57, 92, 103–5
trade regulation as means of suppressing slavery, 29, 35–36, 41–42, 54, 68, 81, 105, 273n24. See also abolition societies
Abolition Committee. See London Committee
abolition societies: Clarkson’s history of, 89–91
class and participation in, 84
disagreements among, 26–27, 49–50, 70
political prints as instrument of, 5, 12, 13, 26–27, 32–33, 35–36
Quakers and organizational networks of, 27, 31, 57, 211, 266nn31–32. See also Amis de Noirs, Société des; London Committee; Pennsylvania Abolition Society; Plymouth Committee
absence: the audience and responsibility for what is not shown, 40
as call to memory, 13–14
and hypervisibility, 168
as representation of loss, 244, 246
Absolut #187 (Thomas), 191, 192
Absolut Power (Thomas), 188, 189
An Abstract of the Evidence (Clarkson), 81–84
description of a slave ship from, 83
map Western Coast of Africa from, 82
Account of the Slave Trade (Falconbridge), 70
Adventures of an African Slaver (Cowley and Covarrubias), 110–22, 112, 117, 119, 121, 236
advertising: Overstreet and recycling of Aunt Jemima stereotype, 129, 130
for runaway slaves, 204, 242
Saar and recycling of Aunt Jemima stereotype, 15, 129, 130, 206, 209, 210
Thomas and reconceptualizing of, 177, 189–93
African Art in Motion: Icon and Act (Thompson), 14
African Headress (Woodruff), 118
African Ritual Dance (Covarrubias), 120
Afro-American Express (Thomas, 2004), 190
Afro-Modern (exhibition), 164
Alexander, Elizabeth, 257–62
Along the Way (Cause Collective), 191
Amazing Grace (Ward, installation), 219–21
“Amazing Grace” (Newton), 220
“Ambush in the Night” (Bob Marley and the Wailers), 237
American Colonization Society, 113–14, 273n9
American Girl doll booklet, “Felicity,” 8, 9
American Museum (magazine), 42–49
American People (Ringgold), 155
Amis de Noirs, Société des, 75–81, 270n28
La Amistad (slave ship): Freedom Schooner Amistad (replica ship), 251–56
and images of insurrection, 98–99, 234
newspaper reports of insurrection aboard, 98, 99
replica pictured in Havana Harbor, 250
Woodruff murals, 123–26, 125. See also Cinqué, Joseph (Senge Pieh)
Amistad murals (Woodruff), 123–26
Amos, Emma, 150
Ancestral Thrones series (Chong), 217
Anderson, Marian, 126
Andrew, Benny, 127, 128
Angelou, Maya, 143
Aptheker, Herbert, 122
Araeen, Rasheed, 158, 161
architectural renderings of slave ships, 149, 254
as inspiration for museum installations, 6
and stage sets, 137, 137–38
The Ark of Return (Leon), 256
Asafo flag, 239, 240
Ashong, Joseph (Paa Joe), 241, 240
Aspects of Negro Life (Douglas, mural), 122–23
Aspiration (Douglas, mural), 122–23
asylum seekers, 7
The Attendant (Julien, film), 160–61
attitudes, bodily: contrapposto, 91
of figures in slave ship icon, 55
Yoruba, 14
Aunt Hagar’s Child (Porter), 201, 204–6, 205
Aunt Jemima stereotype, 15, 129–30, 155, 206, 210
L’Aurore (slave ship), 254
model of, 255
Ausby, Ellsworth, 150, 154
Autoportraits (Gregory), 168
Baartman, Sarah, 168–69, 278n14
Bailey, Malcolm, 132, 145–54, 150, 151, 223
photo of, 146
Bailey, Radcliffe, 241, 242
Baker, Huston, Jr., 15
The Baptism (Jones/Baraka), 132
Baraka, Amiri (LeRoi Jones), 6, 127, 132, 135, 155
as leader of Black Arts Movement, 132, 143
and Revolutionary Theatre, 132–36
Slave Ship: A Historical Pageant, 137–45, 137, 142, 153
Barber, John Warner, 126
Barco Negrero (Mendive), 213, 214
Barnes, Clive, 136, 144–45
Bearden, Romare, 6, 128, 132, 143, 146–47, 147, 155
on Cinque Gallery, 150
and Contemporary Black Artists in America, 153
and Fifteen under Forty, 150–51
Prince Cinque (1971, a.k.a. Middle Passage), 233–36, 235
Roots, 1977 (cover of TV Guide), 232, 233–34
Bell, Thomas, 32
Benin: slave trade in, 1–2
Benjamin, Walter, 11, 109
Berger, Sally, 217
Biard, François-Auguste, 100–101, 115, 160
painting by, 102
Bicentenary of the Parliamentary Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Act (2007, UK): postage stamps commemorating, 4
and practice of mnemonic aesthetics, 2–5, 17, 254, 256
and slave ship icon, 1–5
Bidlake, John, 33
Biggers, Sanford, 211, 226–31
Bindman, David, 53
Black Art Gallery, London, 161–62
Black Artists in Rebuttal to the Whitney Museum (exhibition), 153–54
Black Arts Movement, U.K. (1981–96), 16, 157–61, 166
Black Arts Movement, U.S. (1965–76), 16, 127–32, 143, 151, 155, 197, 223
Black Arts Repertory Theatre/School (BART/S), 134
members of, 135
poster for, 135
Black Atlantic (exhibition, 2004), 164, 167
the black Atlantic, 5–6, 9–11, 14, 60, 118, 175, 238
Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Gilroy), 10
A Black Cargo Ready for an Ocean Voyage (Covarrubias), 112, 119–20
The Black Emergency Cultural Coalition (BECC), 127, 153
The Black Jacobians (James), 122
Black Magic: A Pictorial History of the Negro in American Entertainment (Hughes and Meltzer), 132–33, 144, 206
Black Reconstruction (Du Bois), 122
Blacks in Wax Museum, Baltimore, 252
Black Star Line, newspaper advertisement, 111
Blayton, Betty, 150, 153–54
Blind Memory: Visual Representations of Slavery in England and America, 1780–1865 (Wood), 28
BLK Art Group, 161–62
blueprints, 152
Blues: An Anthology (Handy), 116, 117
Blues People (Baraka), 144
the body: commoditization of (see cargo, human)
kinesthetic memory and, 271n49
racist ideology and dehumanization of, 60
Santeria and centrality of, 216
the body, representations of: in confinement (see shackles)
in “La Marie-Séraphique,” 38–40
repetition and anonymity of, 186–87
Ringgold and the female, 155
sexualization of female, 13, 59–60, 91, 114–15, 141, 168–70, 278n14
stickfigures or pictograms, 15, 40, 152, 172, 218–19
variation and individuality of, 60
Yoruba attitudes and, 14
Boni, Charles and Albert, 110
La Bouche du Roi (Hazoumé), 1–2, 3, 17
Bowen, James, 32
Bowen, Thomas, 32
Bowling, Frank, 154–55, 158, 234
Bradley, Peter, 154
Branagan, Thomas, 103, 190, 279n22
B®anded (Thomas), 177, 188–91
Branded Head (Thomas), 188–87
branding, 16, 114–15, 160, 199. See also advertising
Branding a Negress (Mayer), 114, 114–15
Braz, Rose, 178
Brazil, 126, 213, 238
abolition efforts in, 98, 106–7
Brissot de Warville, Jean-Pierre, 75–76, 80–81
broadsides: London, “Spanish Schooner Josefa Maracayera . . . ,” 96–98, 97
London Description of a Slave Ship (see Description of a Slave Ship (London, broadside))
London Plan and Sections of Slave Ship, 50, 57–72, 85, 87, 270n17
Pennsylvania Plan of an African Ship . . . , 47–49, 48, 49–55
Plymouth, copper engraving, 20–23, 33
Plymouth, steel engraving with “Remarks on the Slave Trade” and, 47–52, 48
Plymouth, with kneeling slave seal, 49–52, 51, 52, 53, 54–55
Brooks (slave ship), 34–35, 41, 57–58, 62–68, 75, 187
Brooks, Peter, 40
Brown, Lloyd W., 145
Browning Madonna (Donkor), 170, 171
Brown v. Board of Education, 131, 149
Buddhism or Buddhist imagery, 211, 226–29
Bunche, Lonnie G., 1, x
Burke, Edmund, 74
Bush, George W., x
Bush, Laura, x
Buxton, Thomas Fowell, 102
cameos (Wedgewood, jasperware), 54, 91
Campbell, Horace, 236–37
Campbell, Mary Schmidt, 129
Campos-Pons, María Magdelena, 6, 15, 211–19, 231, 281n1, 281n4
Cape Coast Castle, Ghana, 210, 237–49, 248
Durand drawing of, 239
Cape Coast Castle Museum, Ghana, 252
Captain Canot (Mayer), 112–15
Captivity and Resistance (Bearden), 234, 235
Carby, Hazel, 157
Carey, Mathew, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48
cargo, human: in Baraka’s Slave Ship, 136–37
capacity regulations for, 68, 267n54
and commoditization of the enslaved, 97–98
contrapposto posture and representation of, 91
crowding and compacting of, 5, 13, 19, 23, 24, 35, 41–42, 58–59, 73, 95, 99–100, 269n13
individuality of the, 60
as invisible in representations of ships, 36–38
Norris and pro-slave trade descriptions of treatment of, 73
repetition and representation of, 175, 217
replicas of cargo holds, 251–56
representation in contemporary art, 213
representation of in slave ship plans, 68–69
represented as inanimate, 36
in ship models, 254
space allotted for, 34–35, 68–69. See also the body, representations of
Carmichael, Stokley, 157
photo of, 156
The Cartographer’s Conundrum (Biggers), 229, 230
The Case of the Vigilante (tract, London Committee), 93–96, 94, 152
Cash Crop (Hayes), 184–88, 185
Cause Collective, 191
Chandler, John Edward, 150
Charles, Don Hogan, 145
photo by, 146
Charles H. Wright African American Museum, Detroit, 187, 252
The Chase Mastercard (Thomas, 2004), 190
Chase-Riboud, Barbara, 153–54, 155
Chicago Tribune, “The Negro in America” special issue, 136
children’s literature, 102–5, 103, 104, 222, 222–23, 226
Childs, Charles, 154
Chong, Albert, 217, 218
Christiansborg slave castle, Ghana, 237
Cinqué, Joseph (Senge Pieh), 126, 128, 234
Cinque Gallery, 128, 145–46, 146, 147, 150, 223, 234
Civil Rights Act (1964), 133
civil rights movement: art commemorating martyrs of, 225
as context for black art, 126–27, 133–34, 142
and integration, 149
Clarke, John Henrik, 222
Clarkson, Thomas, 13, 19, 23–24, 27–28, 31, 49, 57–58, 88–93, 100, 101
and abolition movement in France, 75–76
Clinton, Bill, 179, 280n29
clothing, images on, 4, 6, 16, 189
Codex (Biggers, exhibition), 229, 230
coffins: Ghanian burial vessels, 239
ship as, 36
coins, commemorative, 88, 88
Cole, Willie, 16, 195–201
Coleridge, Samuel, 32
collage, 156, 158–60, 170–71, 206, 208, 218–19, 234
collective memory, 12–13, 122, 135–36, 216
colonialism, 142–43, 161, 166–67, 173
colonization as alternative to slave trade, 29, 84–86, 113–14, 120, 273n9
Ghana and African national independence, 237
and slave trade, 161
Wadström’s Essay on Colonization, 12, 84–86, 85
Coltrane, John, 14–15
commoditization: advertising and, 188
of the human body (see commoditization of the human body)
and loss of individual identity, 177
of memory, 243–44
sports and, 188
commoditization of the human body, 97–98, 164, 170, 177
and anonymity or erasure of the individual, 13, 100, 172, 177, 187
branding and, 102, 115, 188–93
prison industrial complex and, 6, 177–84, 187
repetition and representation of human cargo, 175, 217
Thomas and themes of, 188–93. See also cargo, human
concrete as medium, 184–88
Conde Nast Traveler (Udé), 246
Confrontation (Bob Marley and the Wailers, album), 236
Contemporary Black Artists in America (exhibition), 153
copper engraving: of slave ship plan, 270n17
cotton, 151–52
Covarrubias, Miguel, 110–22
Cowley, Malcolm, 112
Craton, Michael, 54
Crichlow, Ernest, 128, 146, 147, 149–51, 150, 234
Cries of Africa (Clarkson), 92–93, 100
criminal justice system. See prison industrial complex
Critical Resistance (advocacy organization), 178
Croslin, Robert: bracelet design, 8, 9
Crossings (Saar, exhibition), 206–10
Crossroads of a People, Crossroads of a Trade (installation, Cape Coast Castle Museum), 352
cross-section views, 27, 38, 58, 58–59, 62, 71, 91, 96–98, 97, 107, 147
Cuba, 211–19, 256
Cugoano, Ottobah, 60
cyanotypes, 152
The Dark Past, the Grey Future (Saar), 208
Dash, Julie, 143
Davis, Angela Y., 178, 184, 187
DeCarava, Roy, 131
Deeble, T., 50–53
engraving by, 51, 52, 53
deformation of mastery, 15
Description of a Slave Ship (London, broadside), 58, 59
Alexander’s poetic imagination and, 260–62
as anonymous publication, 71
distribution of, 17, 27, 71–72, 87, 270n17, 271n39, 271n41
formal elements and semiotic power of, 13–14
French distribution of, 75–77
Hazoumé’s La Bouche du Roi and, 1–5, 17
iconicity of, 4–9, 13–15, 27
as “improvement” of Plymouth Plan, 28, 50, 265n12
and mnemonic aesthetics, 4–5
and New Negro Arts Movement, 5–6
as “official” version, 5, 57–58
Plan of an African Ship as prototype for, 27
as political print, 5, 71–76
reenactment of, 4–5
text accompanying, 67–71
Wadström’s use of, 85–86
wooden model after, 77–78, 78
Dhow Chasing in Zanzibar Waters (Sullivan), 107, 107
Die (Ringgold), 155
digital media, 6, 164, 166, 166–67, 190–91, 246
distribution of slave ship prints, 5, 32–33, 42–43, 47
DNA, 233, 280n33
Dolben, William, 35, 54
Dolben Act (1789), 35, 273n24
Domestic Identity IV (Cole), 196, 197, 210
Donkor, Godfried, 6, 170, 171
“door of no return,” 238, 245, 247–49, 248
Doty, Robert, 153
Douglas, Aaron, 110, 116, 118, 122–23, 124
Douglass, Calvin, 150
Driskell, David, 9
Du Bois, W. E. B., 44, 105–6, 122, 143, 238
Dunham, Katherine, 143
Durand, Robert, 238
journal page of, 239
Dutchman (Jones a.k.a. Baraka), 132–33
ECU: European Currency Unfolds (Kempadoo), 166, 166–67
Edinburgh Society, 83–84
“Egyptian form,” 118
The Eighth Ditch (Jones a.k.a. Baraka), 132
ekphrasis, 261
An Elephant Hunt (Mayer), 114
Elford, Jonathan, 32
Elford, William, 32–35, 38–42, 44–45, 49–50, 57, 71
pamphlet text authorized by, 24–26
Elmina slave castle, Ghana, 201, 237–47
historic preservation efforts at, 243, 245–46
questions about authentic representation at, 244–46
endpapers, 118–19, 119
Equiano, Olaudah (Gustavus Vassa), 19, 22, 23–29, 35, 42, 55, 59–60, 264nn1–3
Essay on Colonization (Wadström), 12, 84–86
plate from, 85
An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species (Clarkson), 31–32
European Currency Unfolds (Kempadoo), 166, 166–67
Evans, Mary, 171–75, 173
Everything Is Separated by Water (Campos-Pons), 215
Execrable Human Traffic (Morland), 36, 37, 102
Experimental Death Unit no. 1 (Baraka), 134
Fabre, Geneviève, 142
Face of the Gods: Art and Altars of Africa and African Americans (Thompson), 10
Falconbridge, Alexander, 79
“fantasy coffins,” 239, 240
Feelings, Tom, 132, 143, 211, 222, 222–23, 226
Ferdinand, Val, 144
Festival Mondial des Arts Nègres (FESMAN), 143
Les Fetiches (Jones), 118
Field Museum, Chicago, 252
Fifteen under Forty (exhibition), 150–53
Fine, Elsa Honig, 152
The First White Christmas and Other Empire Stories (Rodney, exhibition), 161–62
First World Festival of Negro Arts, 143
The Flag Is Bleeding (Ringgold), 155
Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art (Thompson), 9–10
Forced Passages (Rodríguez), 179–80
Fort Good Hope Fantasy Coffin (Paa Joe), 240
Foulah Chief (Covarrubias), 120, 121
found objects as media, 168, 186, 198, 202, 205, 206, 210, 220. See also collage
The Fragility of Smiles (Saar), 208
France: slave trade and, 270n30
Société des Amis de Noirs and abolition in, 75–81, 270n28
Franklin, Benjamin, 42, 54, 270n28
Freedom Schooner Amistad (replica ship), 250, 251–56
French, Howard W., 2
From Our House to Your House (Cole), 198
From Slave to Champ (Donkor), 170, 171
Frost, David, 138
Furneaux, Robin, 74
Fusco, Coco, 212
Gaither, Edmund Barry, 151
Garrick, Neville, 236
Garvey, Marcus, 110, 122, 236
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 15
Gerima, Haile, 246
Ghana: national independence of, 142, 237
roots tourism and slave castle sites in, 237–46
Ghent, Henri, 127
Gilligan, Thomas, 103
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson, 178
Gilroy, Paul, 5, 10–11, 16, 157, 167
Gingerbread (Evans), 175, 176
Giovanni, Nikki, 178
globalization, 168, 187, 246
Glueck, Grace, 145, 198
Go West Young Man (Piper), 164–65, 165
The Great Migration, 109, 122
The Great Migration window, New Mount Pilgrim church, 13
Greaves, William, 143
Gregory, Joy, 167–70
Guinea Princess (Covarrubias), 120
Hackwood, William, 52–53
Hagar in the Wilderness (Lewis), 204–5, 205
Haley, Alex, 132, 224, 233
Hall, Stuart, 157–58, 166, 167–68
Hall of Negro Life, 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition, 123
Hamilton, Charles V., 157
Handy, W. C., 116
The Harder They Come (Donkor), 170, 171
“Harlem: Mecca of the New Negro” (Locke), 109–10
Harlem on My Mind: Cultural Capital of Black America 1900–1968 (exhibition), 127–28, 153, 154
Harlem Renaissance, 116, 117, 129
Harper’s Weekly, 190, 197
Harrison, George, 57
Harvey and Darton, printers, 92, 96
Hatch, Marshall E., 222, 224, 226
Hawker, Robert, 33
Hawkins, John, 29–30, 166, 265n23
coat of arms of, 30, 53, 163
Hawksworth, J., 93
Haydon, Benjamin Robert, 100, 101
Hayes, Stephen, 177, 184–88
Hazoumé, Romuald, 1–2, 6–7, 17
Heinz History and Culture Center, Pittsburgh, 252
Henrietta Marie (shipwreck), 252–54
Hinduism, 229
historiography, 27–29
History of a People Who Were Not Heroes (Campos-Pons), 211–12
A History of the Amistad Captives (Barber), 126
The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by British Parliament (Clarkson), 27–28, 50, 54, 88–92, 265n11, 272n9
description of a slave ship from, 90
as version of iconic image, 27–28
Hoare, Samuel, 42, 57
Hogarth, William, 12, 32–33
Hold, Separate but Equal (Bailey), 147–50, 148
Hollander, John, 257, 261
Hollingsworth, Alvin C., 150
Honour, Hugh, 53–54, 100
Hoodoo Mandala (Overstreet), 228, 229
Hooper, Joseph, 52
Hopkins, Pauline, 205
Household Guardians (Cole), 196, 197–98, 206
Hughes, Langston, 116, 130–31, 143, 206
Hurricane Katrina, aftermath, 6, 7
Hurston, Zora Neale, 116, 205
icons, 191
and African diaspora art, 14–16
emotional communication and, 12
and interpretive possibility, 191, 262
liminality and, 13
and mnemonic aesthetics, 10–11
political power of, 12
religious or sacred context of, 12–13
slave ship images as (see slave ship icon)
and symbolic possession of the past, 129
and Yoruba “attitudes,” 14
identity, African diaspora: as continual process of becoming, 166
mnemonic aesthetics and, 9–11, 17, 128–29, 130, 132, 157–58
racism and erasure of individual, 188
and roots tourism, 233, 243
An Idyll of the Deep South (Douglas), 123
I Like Olympia in Black Face (Rivers), 154
I’ll Bend but I Will Not Break (Saar), 206–7, 207
illegal slave trade, 92, 96–100, 106–7, 115, 120, 152, 190
incarceration, 6, 177–84, 187
innocents, as voiceless, 38–40
Inspection and Sale of a Negro (Mayer), 114
Inspection and Sale of Slaves (Covarrubias), 120, 121
insurrections, 59
in Bearden’s works, 234
depictions of, 85, 98, 99, 126
at San Domingo, 77
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, The African (Equiano), 19, 22, 59–60, 264nn1–3
International Day of Remembrance for the Victims of Slavery, 256
International Slavery Museum, Liverpool Transatlantic Slavery Gallery, Liverpool, 252
Into Bondage (Douglas, mural), 122–23, 124
irons, branding. See branding
irons, chains of captivity. See shackles
irons or ironing board iconography: in Cole’s works, 195–201
in Porter’s works, 201–6
in Saar’s works, 206–10, 280n33
as symbolic markers, 205–6
visual similarities between slave ship plans and, 195
Isaac, Dan, 138
Islands No. 4 (Martin, painting), 257–59, 258
“Islands No. 4” (Alexander, poem), 257–62
Ivory Caravan (Covarrubias), 120
Jackson, Jesse, 6, 223–24
Jackson, Mahalia, 220
Jafa, Arthur, 15–16
James, C. L. R., 77, 122
J-E-L-L-O (Baraka), 134
Jennings, Judith, 31
Jennings, Wilmer, 118
Jesus of Lubeck (slave ship, British carrack), 29, 166
jewelry: bracelet design, 8
cameos (Wedgewood, jasperware), 54, 91
Jezebel stereotype, 155
Jocelyn, Nathaniel, 234
Johnson, Charles S., 109, 223
Johnson, Daniel LaRue, 154
Johnson, Jack, 170, 278n17
Johnson, John H., 131
Johnson, Lyndon B., 133–34
Jones, James, 34
Jones, Lois Mailou, 118
Jordan and Johnnie Walker in Timberland Circa 1923 (Thomas), 189
Josefa Maracayera (slave ship), 96–98, 97
Julien, Isaac, 143, 160–61
Kempadoo, Roshini, 166–67
Kifle, Gediyon, x
Kimmelman, Michael, 259
kinesthetic memory, 271n49
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 142
King, Woodie, Jr., 136
The Kitty (slave ship), 24, 64, 69
kneeling slave images, 269n93
on Abolition Society seals, 28, 36, 50–55, 53, 89, 190–91
on commemorative coin, 88, 88
Oldfield’s use of, 28
on Wedgewood cameo, 54, 55
Knopf, Alfred A., 110, 116
Ku Klux Klan, 133, 179
Lawrence, Jacob, 126
Lee, Eugene, 136–37, 138–39, 221
set design by, 137
Leon, Rodney, 256
Levin, Marc, 177, 180–84
Lewis, Edmonia, 204–5
Lewis, John (Rep. GA), x
Lewis, Norman, 128, 128, 146, 146–47, 147, 234
The Liberation of Aunt Jemima (Saar), 129, 130, 206
The Life and Adventures of Olaudah Equiano, 19
frontispiece and title page, 22, 227n93, 264n3
Locke, Alain, 109–10
Lomax, Alan, 122
London Committee (Abolition Committee), 13, 31–33, 42, 49, 75, 88, 92
Abstract of the Evidence published and distributed by, 81–84
accuracy of ship plans, 57–58, 62, 68, 71, 76–77
The Case of the Vigilante, tract published by, 93–96, 94
Clarkson as member of, 27–28
kneeling slave seal design of, 52–55, 53
and legal defense of rights of black people, 31
membership and organization of, 31, 266n32
model of slave ship, 81
Plan and Sections of Slave Ship broadside published by, 50, 57–72, 85, 87, 270n17
and Société des Amis de Noirs, 75–76
“Spanish Schooner Josefa Maracayera . . .” broadside, 96–98, 97
Lotus (Biggers), 226–29, 227
Lotus II (Biggers), 229
Lownes, Caleb, 42–47
lynching, 12, 126, 154–55, 172, 189
Maafa Remembrance (stained glass), 224–26
Macdonald, Kevin, 143, 237
Madonna and Child (Ausby), 155
Maiden Voyage (Saar), 207–8, 208
Malone, Bonz, 180
Man, Spirit, Mask (Cole), 200
Mandala of the B-Bodhisattva II (Biggers), 228, 229
Mandingo Chief and His Sword Bearer (Mayer), 114, 114
maps: Bearden’s use of, 234
Bowling’s use of, 117–18, 234
Clarkson’s use of, 81, 272n6
Covarrubias’s use of, 117–18
imaginary “river” of abolition, 89–91
and memory, 272n6
Western Coast of Africa (1791), 82
La Marie Séraphique (anon), 38, 39, 86, 208, 268n62
Marley (Macdonald, documentary film), 237
Marley, Bob (and the Wailers), 236–37
“Masked Racism: Reflections of the Prison Industrial Complex” (Davis), 178, 184, 187
masks, 1, 117–18, 195, 198–200, 200, 210, 274n30
Cole’s use of, 195–98, 200, 201
in Hazoumé, 1
iron scorch marks compared to, 195
in Jones’s works, 274n30
and the New Negro Arts Movement, 116–18
in Saar’s works, 210, 274n30
Mason, Charlotte Osgood, 116, 274n21
Massacre at Digby (Mayer), 114
Maximum Security Democracy (Thorne), 178–80
Mayer, Brantz, 112–15
Mayhew, Richard, 153–54
M. & B. Haydon (printers), 33
McRay, Daryl: T-shirt design by, 7
Meltzer, Milton, 130–31, 132, 144, 206
memory: art as reenactment, 139–40
collective memory, 12–13, 122, 135–36, 216
as commodity, 244
“embedded,” 202–3
heritage sites and practice of, 243–44
historical amnesia, 13–14
image and visual encoding of, 62
kinesthetic, 216, 271n49
maps and, 272n6
mnemonic aesthetics and ritualized rememberance, 5
objects and embedded, 202
place memory, 211–12, 216
postmemory, 15, 16
and preservation of survivor-witness narratives, 122
“sites of memory” (lieux de memoire), 238
slave ship icon as repository of, 183
Memory and Skin (Gregory), 167–68, 168
Mendive, Manuel, 214
Mercer, Kobena, 157
Meynell, Francis, 99, 99–100, 154
Middle Passage, 11–12
and art as reenactment of experience, 139
book design as expression of, 116–20
slave ship icon as metaphor of, 5–6, 15, 138–39
as theme, 12
Middle Passage (Bowlings), 155, 234
Middle Passage (Johnson), 223
Middle Passage (Willis), 243, 242
The Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo (Feelings), 222, 222–23, 226
Migration (Saar), 210, 209
Migration: Africa to America II (Saar), 209, 210
Migrations: Journeys through the Black Atlantic (exhibition), 164
Migrations/Transformations (Saar), 210
Miller, E. Ethelbert, 257
Miller, James, 198
Mirabeau, Honore-Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de, 75–81
The Mirror of Misery; or Tyranny Exposed (Wood), 103, 104
mnemonic aesthetics, 264n28
and identity formation, 9–11, 17, 128–29, 130, 132, 157–58
music and, 236
practice of, 10–12
and reinterpretation of stereotypes, 129
repetition and, 11
ritual and, 16
and ritualized remembering of slavery, 5
and symbolic possession of the past, 129
Mochon, John, 150
model ships, 77–81, 78, 254–56
Mora, Francisco, 115
Morland, George, 12, 36, 37, 71, 102, 268n61
Morrison, Toni, 11, 257
Moses, Gilbert, 136, 138, 144
Moskowitz, David Vlado, 236
Muhammad, Erika, 167
Mutiny Aboard the Amistad (Woodruff), 123–25, 125
names, rejection of “slave names,” 275n16
Nash, Teixeira, 143
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, 252
National Museum of African American History: dedication ceremony, x
Négritude, 143, 277n51
Negro Drawings (Covarrubias), 116–17, 119
The Negro in an African Setting (Douglas), 123
Negro Mother and Child (Covarrubias), 119
Negro Slave Revolts (Aptheker), 122
New Deal, 122
New Jemima (Overstreet), 129, 130, 155
New Mount Pilgrim Church, 13, 221–26
The New Negro: An Interpretation (Locke), 110
New Negro Arts Movement (1919–29), 5–6, 16, 109–10, 112, 116, 120, 122, 123
and symbolic markers of African heritage, 118
New Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. See Pennsylvania Abolition Society (New Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery)
Newton, John, 220
Ngaboh-Smart, Francis, 140
Night Journey (Bowling), 158, 234
Nkrumah, Kwame, 142–43, 223, 238
Nora, Pierre, 11, 238
Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829 (Walsh), 98, 98, 126
No Time to Die (Porter), 201, 203–4
Nyquist, Ewald B., 150
Obama, Barack, x
Obama, Michelle, x
Objects of Beauty (Gregory), 168–70, 169
Oceans Apart (Pollard), 158–60, 159
Ode to the CBM: Am I Not a Man and a Brother (Thomas), 190–91, 191
Of the People: The African American Experience (exhibition), 187
Ogé, Vincent, 77
Oguibe, Olu, 172
Oldfield, J. R., 28, 54
“On Both Sides, Reason for Remorse” (French, New York Times), 2
Oquet, Charo, 214
Organization of Black American Culture (OBAC), 132
Orozco, José Clemente, 115–16
ovals: in Alexander’s “Islands Number Four,” 259–62
in Martin’s Islands #4, 258, 259
Ové, Horace, 157
photo by, 156
Overstreet, Joe, 129, 154–55, 228, 229
Paa Joe (Joseph Ashong), 239, 241
pamphlets, abolitionism and use of, 23–26, 27, 32, 269n13
Pan-Africanism, 110, 236, 246
Pappas, James G., 150
Papper, Joseph, 146
Parks, Louise Adele, 150
parody and pastiche, 15
Parrey, Captain of Royal Navy, 34–35, 38, 62, 63
Past Imperfect, Future Tense (Piper), 161, 162
The Penitential Tyrant (Branagan), 103, 190, 279n22
Pennsylvania Abolition Society (New Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery): and American Museum plan, 42–49, 43, 45, 103
broadside produced by, 49–55
and Plymouth Society pamphlet, 42
performance art, 5, 130, 135, 175, 211–17, 229
“performing identity,” 264n2
Phillips, James, 49–50, 57, 71–72, 81
photography, 212
digital, 166, 166–67, 190–91, 246
and documentation of slave trade, 107
roots tourism and, 246–49
A Pictorial History of the Negro in America (Hughes and Meltzer), 130–32
Piper, Keith, 6, 29, 161–67, 162
Pirates Boarding a Vessel (Covarrubias), 120
Pitt, William, 32, 74, 84, 88
Pitts-Foster, Betty J., 150
Plan and Sections of Slave Ship (London Committee), 61
accuracy of, 57–58, 62, 68
broadside published, 50, 57–72, 85, 87, 270n17
distribution of, 57, 71–72, 74
as “improved” version of Plymouth Plan, 50, 57–58, 67–70
as influence on later versions, 75–76, 85, 87, 270n17
as political print, 57–58
text accompanying image, 59, 60, 62–67
Plan of an African Ship . . . (Pennsylvania Abolition Society): and advantages of multiple formats, 47–49
in American Museum, 42–49, 43, 52 (see also “Remarks on the Slave Trade”)
and American Museum plan, 42–49, 43, 45, 103
broadside prints of, 47–55, 51
distribution of, 47
and Remarks on the Slave Trade, 103–5, 104
text accompanying, 47–49
as version of Plymouth Plan, 42, 43, 44–45
Plan of an African Ship . . . (Plymouth Committee): accuracy of, 36, 52, 68–69
broadside with copper engraving, 19–27, 20–23, 33, 37
broadside with explanatory text and steel engraving, 49–52, 51
broadside with kneeling slave seal, 49–52, 51, 52, 53, 55
and depiction of human cargo, 19, 36–38, 58, 68
Equiano’s public support for, 19–26
as influence on other versions, 42, 44, 49
pamphlet with explanatory text, 24–26, 33, 36, 70
as political print, 35–36
as prototype of slave ship icon, 19, 27
in Wood’s Mirror of Misery, 104
plantation slavery, 25, 123, 139
political power and slave economy, 73
Plessy v. Ferguson, 149
Plumb, A. H., 47
Plymly, Katherine and Joseph, 83–84
Plymouth, and the slave trade, 29–31
Plymouth Committee (abolitionist organization), 32, 33
broadside with kneeling slave seal produced by, 49–52, 51, 55
and the Brooks as slave ship, 34–35, 41
kneeling slave image used by, 53
pamphlet produced by, 19–29, 33–34, 57, 70
as pioneer of political prints, 33. See also Plan of an African Ship . . . (Plymouth)
Pollard, Ingrid, 158–60, 159
Pollitt, Jerome, 91
Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery (Oldfield), 28
Porter, Marianetta, 195, 201–6
Portrait Harriet (Ausby), 155
Portrait of Sojourner Truth (Ausby), 155
postage stamps, commemorative, 4
postmemory, 15, 16
Powell, James, 77
Powell, Richard J., 109–10
Powers, Harriet, 229–30, 231
“Praise Song for the Day” (Miller), 257
Price, Sarah, 4
Priceless #1 (Thomas), 190–91, 192
Prince Cinque (Bearden), 234, 235
The Prince of Wales and Other Famous Americans (Covarrubias), 116
printing, 14–15
abolition societies and political prints, 5, 12, 13, 26–27, 32–33, 35–36
advances in illustrated books, 113
blueprint inspired works, 151–52
blueprints and cyanotypes, 152
and commercialization of art, 201
copper engraving, 268n86
and dissemination of images, 47
image reproduction, 12
lithography, 268n86
woodcut engravings, 102–3, 198–200, 268n86
“PRISON: AMERIKKKA’S NEW PLANTATIONS” (Resistant Strains collective), 176, 177–79
prison industrial complex, 6, 177–84, 187
publishing: black history and culture journals, 131
Quakers: and abolitionist movement, 27, 31, 57, 89–91, 266nn31–32
and iconic image, 211, 266n32
prohibition of images from worship, 13
Question Bridge: Black Males (Cause Collective), 193, 193
quilts and quilting, 155, 229–30, 230, 231, 241–42, 242
fabric collages, 234, 235
Race in Digital Space (exhibition), 167
rape, 12, 59–60, 141, 155, 245
realism, 62, 100, 114–15
Reconstruction era, 172, 179
regulation of the slave trade, 29, 35–36, 41–42, 44, 54, 68, 81, 105, 273n24
Reilly, Robin, 54
Reiss, Winold, 110
religion: abolition as Christian movement, 12–13
Buddhism or Buddhist imagery, 211, 226–29
export of sacred African ritual objects, 275n35
Rastafari, 236
Santería, 211, 212–13, 216
slave ship emblem as religious icon, 12–14, 211
Yoruba orishas, 1, 141, 212–13, 215
Relocating the Remains (Piper), 6, 167
“Remarks on the Slave Trade”: in American Museum magazine, 42–47, 43, 45, 103
as broadside, 47, 48
reprint, 103–5
reparations, 17, 179, 223–24, 280n29
repetition: in African art, 14–15
in Alexander’s poetry, 260–61
in Campos-Pons’s works, 217, 230–31
in Cole’s works, 196
in Evan’s works, 172–75
in Hayes’ works, 184–86
and imperfection, 262
in Martin’s works, 259
and mnemonic aesthetic, 184
in Porter’s works, 205–6, 210
and revision, 145, 195, 230–31
as ritual or sacred act, 231
in Saar’s works, 208, 210
“Representation of an Insurrection on board a Slave Ship” (from Wadström), 85, 85–86
Resistant Strains collective, 176, 177, 178
Revelations of a Slave Smuggler (Drake), 105
La Revue Nègre, 118, 120
Reyes, Franklin, 250
Right of Search, 107
Ringgold, Faith, 155
rituals: and African diaspora identity, 109, 118
and assemblage process in art, 198, 206, 210
Baraka’s theater and, 135, 138–39, 143–45
Cole and embedded, 195, 198
and conversion of the slave ship icon, 16–17
of diaspora and return, 10
and history of slavery, 109
identity and, 11–12
mnemonic aesthetics and ritualized remembrance, 5, 9–16
Porter and embedded, 202
and recreation of memory, 11
rhythm or repetition and, 11, 14–15, 143
Rivera, Diego, 115–16, 125–26
Rivers, Larry, 6, 132, 154
Rodney, Donald, 161–63, 164
Rodríguez, Dylan, 179–80
Roots (Haley), 132, 224, 233–34
Roots: An American Family Saga (television miniseries), 233–34
Roots Odyssey (Bearden, TV Guide cover), 232, 233–36
roots tourism: and memory as commodity, 244
performance of collective memory and, 243–46
Roots and interest in heritage, 233
and slave castle sites, 237–46
Rosskam, Edwin, 131
Saar, Betye, 15, 129, 155, 195, 202, 206–10, 280n26, 280n29, 280n33
Saint-Domingue, 77
Sanchez, Maurice, 198
Sanchez, Sonia, 178
sankofa, 225, 238, 249
Sankofa (Gerima, film, 1993), 247, 248
Sankofa Peace Window, 225
Sansom, Phillip, 52
Saunders, Raymond, 150
Scenes in Africa and America (Taylor), 105, 105
Schema (Evans), 175, 176
schematic plans, 36
Bailey’s use of, 145
blueprints and, 152
Sections of a Slave Ship (the Veloz Passageiro) (Walsh), 98, 98
segregation, 131–32, 149
Sell, Mike, 141
Sénghor, Léopold Sédar, 143
Separate but Equal (Bailey), 132, 145–50, 151
The Seven Powers Come by the Sea (Campos-Pons), 15–16, 211–19, 213, 217
sexualization of the black female body, 13, 59–60, 91, 114–15, 141, 168–70, 278n14
shackles, 13, 24, 36, 50–51, 52, 59–62, 69, 95–96, 154, 179, 184, 186
absent in image, 40–41, 47
gender and representations of, 59
mechanical drawing of, 90
Sharecropper’s Song (Porter), 202
Sharp, Granville, 31, 49, 75, 100
Shepp, Archie, 136
shields: in Cole’s iconography, 197–98
A Ship Called Jesus (Piper), 165, 165–66
ships. See slave ships
Shonibare, Yinka: The Wanderer, 254–56, 255
“signifying” tradition, 15
silence or voicelessness, 9, 38–40, 55, 139
Silver Muzzles (Porter), 203
Siqueiros, David, 125–26
“sites of memory” (lieux de memoire), 238
Sketchbooks (Rodney), 162–63, 163
Slam (Levin, film), 180–84
Slave Coast Series: Grabbing, Snatching (Weems), 246–47, 247
slave narratives, 11, 15, 60. See also Equiano, Olaudah
Slaver (Porter), 201–3, 203
Slave Rape Series (Ringgold), 155
Slavery: The Black Man and the Man (Jordan & Chandler, film), 154
Slavery through Reconstruction (Douglas), 123
Slave Ship (Rivers), 154
Slave Ship (Turner), 100, 101
Slave Ship: A Historical Pageant (Baraka), 132, 137–45
program cover, 137
set design by Eugene Lee, 137
slave ship icon: abolitionist origins and variations of, 27–28
accompanying text and context for, 27–28, 47–49, 91–92
as architectural schematic reference, 6, 37–38, 60
formats and relationship of image and text, 47–49
historiography and versions of abolitionist engraving, 27–29
and ironing board as symbol, 202–3
oval geometric form and, 262
as political print used by abolitionists, 5, 12, 13, 26–27, 32–33, 35–36
popularization and dissemination of image, 13
reappropriation by black Atlantic artists, 5–6, 15–16, 208–9
and religious reverence, 230–31
and stereotypes of blacks, 87
and symbolic possession of the past, 10–11
visual similarities to steam irons, 195
slave ship plans, 50, 52, 68–69, 265n12
accuracy of, 23, 34–35, 52, 57–58, 62, 68, 71, 76–77
cross-section views, 27, 38, 58, 58–59, 62, 71, 91, 96–98, 97, 98, 107, 147
distribution of, 270n17
human cargo as represented in, 13, 36–38, 91, 175, 217. See also Description of a Slave Ship (London); Plan of an African Ship . . . (Pennsylvania Abolition Society); Plan of an African Ship . . . (Plymouth Committee)
slave ships: crews aboard, 13, 60, 66, 144, 238
descriptions of conditions aboard, 35, 45–46, 62–67
as evidence of slave trade, 1
exhibitions of salvaged wrecks, 252
illness and medical care aboard, 65–66, 69–70
as physical spaces of the slave trade, 10
replicas of, 250, 251–56
schematics of (see slave ship plans)
wooden models of, 77–81, 78, 254–56
A Slave Ship Speaks (traveling exhibition), 252, 254
The Slave Trade (Biard), 100–101, 100–102, 102, 115, 120, 160
Slave Trade: A Sermon Preached at Stonehuse Chapel (Bidlake, 1789), 33
Slave Trade Regulation Act (1789), 35, 273n24
Smith, Alvin, 150
Smith, Vincent D., 150
The Smuggling of Slaves (Covarrubias), 120
Sobchack, Vivian, 11
Société des Amis de Noirs, 75–81, 270n28
Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. See London Committee (Abolition Committee)
Sohn, Sonja, 180–81
Some American History (Rivers, exhibition), 154–55
Somerset, James, 31, 266n30
Somerset case, 31, 266n30
“The Song That Named the Land” (Thompson), 10
Sons of Africa, 264n2
space: alloted human cargo in slave ships, 34–35
cargo holds of slave ships, collect or cross, 5, 19, 20–21, 58, 58–59, 94, 95, 269n13
confinement (see under cargo, human; incarceration)
maps and memory, 272n6
and performance of memory, 17, 187, 211, 216, 243
ships as space of Atlantic slave trade, 10
site as influence on installation or performance art, 170–72, 186, 216, 220
and the slave ship icon, 17
“space of treatment,” 14–15
theatrical sets, 138–40
“Spanish Schooner Josefa Maracayera, . . .” (broadside, London Committee), 96–98, 97
Staggers, Bernie, 7
stereotypes: iconic kneeling slave and, 53–54
transformed by artists, 15, 129, 154–55, 206–8
Still Life with Fetish (Jennings), 118
Stowage (Cole), 198–200, 199
Stratton, Richard, 180
Suggs, Eldridge, III, 150
Sun Ra, 143
The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870 (Du Bois), 105–6
suppression of the slave trade, 105–7. See also regulation of the slave trade
Survival (Bob Marley and the Wailers, album), 236–37
The Sweet Flypaper of Life (Hughes and Decavara), 131
symbolic possession of the past, 9, 10–11, 129, 132, 136–37, 209–10, 247, 252, 257
Taubman, Howard, 133
Taylor, Isaac, 105
Tecora (slave ship), 251
texts, explanatory: interpretive relationship between image and, 119, 120
in pamphlet distributed with first, Plymouth plan, 24–26
of Plan of an African Ship’s Lower Deck (1788), 19
theater: and collective memory, 135–36
Thomas, Gregory E., 224, 226
Thomas, Hank Willis, 6, 177, 188–93, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193
Thompson, Robert Farris, 9–10, 14, 139, 212–13
Thorne, David, 178–80
Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species (Cugoano), 60
Throne for the Ancestors (Chong), 217, 218
Tingcombe, John, 32
“To Heal A Nation” (Jones/Baraka), 136
The Toilet (Jones/Baraka), 132
Too Soon for Sorry (Resistant Strains collective), 176, 177, 178–79
torture, instruments of, 51–52, 90, 95–96, 105, 179, 190, 202, 204, 245
tourism. See roots tourism
Townsend, William H., 126
Tra . . . (Campos-Pons), 15, 218–19, 219
trade regulation and suppressing slavery, 35, 44
Traite Negrier L’Aurore, 254
Transatlantic Slavery Gallery, Liverpool, 252
Trewman & Haydon (printers), 33–34
triangular trade, 29, 34–35, 125, 218–19, 256
and slave ships, 10
trickster art, 195, 208
Trotter, Thomas, 269n13
TV Guide, 233
Twelve Million Black Voices (Wright and Rosskam), 131
The Two Queens — Elizabeth and Yemayá (Oquet), 213, 214
Udé, Iké, 246
Untitled (Bailey, 1969), 151, 151–52
Uprising (Bob Marley and the Wailers, album), 236
U.S. Postage Stamp Commemorating the Advent of Black Power (Ringgold), 155
Van Der Zee, James, 110
Van Vechten, Carl, 116
The Venus (slave ship), 24, 64, 69
video installations, 1–2, 3, 15, 164, 167, 168, 191–93
View of the Deck of the Slave Ship Albanoz (Maynell), 99, 99–100, 154
The Vigilante (slave ship), 93–96, 94
A Village (Covarrubias), 120
Visceral Canker (Rodney), 163, 164
Vodún (Voodoo), 229
Vue du Cap-Français et du Navire “La Marie Séraphique,” 39
Wadström, Carl Bernhard, 12, 84–86
Walker, David, 280n29
Wall Hangings (Evans), 172–73
Wall of Respect (1967), 132
Walsh, Robert, 98, 126
Wanderer (Shonibare, model ship), 254–56, 255
Ward, Nari, 211, 219–21, 231
Warville, Jean-Pierre Brissot de, 75
Washington, George, 43
“We Are the Survivors” (Bob Marley and the Wailers), 237
The Weary Blues (Hughes), 116
Weber, Joanna, 257, 259
Weems, Carrie Mae, 143, 246–47, 247
Weitman, Wendy, 195
Wells, Richard, 42–47
Wheel of Fortune (Evans), 172–75, 173, 173–75
Where We At: Black Women Artists (organization), 155
White, J. Philip, 150
White, Walter, 116
Wigfall, Benjamin Leroy, 109, 150
Wilberforce, William, 17, 57, 71–76, 84, 263n2
model of slave ship used by, 80, 81
Wilberforce House, Hull, 252, 253
Williams, Aubrey, 158
Williams, Saul, 180–81
Williams, William T., 154
Willis, Deborah, 189–90, 241, 242
Willis, Songha, 191
Windward Coast (Bailey), 241, 242
Women of Timbo Drawing Water (Mayer), 114–15
Women Students and Artists for Black Art Liberation (WSABAL), 155
Wood, Marcus, 28
Wood, Samuel, 103, 190
books published by, 22, 103, 190
slave ship plan printed by, 103–5, 104
woodcut engravings, 102–3, 198–200, 268n86
woodcuts: of slave ship plan, 270n17
Woodruff, Hale, 125, 118, 123–26
Woods, Joseph, 52
Words for Images: A Gallery of Poems (exhibition and book), 257
Workers and Warriors series (Saar), 206
Works Progress Administration (PWA), 122–23
wrecks, salvaged slave ships, 252–54
Wright, Richard, 131, 142, 153, 246
X, Malcolm, 132, 133, 136, 143, 157
X, Michael (Michael de Freitas), 157
Yates, Frances, 264n28
Yesteryear (Saar), 209
Yoruba culture, 263n1
Baraka and reference to, 141–42
Campos-Pons and, 212–19
Caribbean practice of Yoruba religion, 212–13
Hazoumé and reference to, 1
and representation of bodily attitudes, 14–15
Zelizer, Barbie, 122
Zettler, F. X., 224
“Zimbabwe” (Bob Marley and the Wailers), 237
Zong (slave ship), 100, 251–52