Index

aesthetics survey: overview of, 342, 374–75; Abela on America as source and, 339–40, 374, 377–78; abstract art and, 379, 396, 397, 399–400; Avilés Ramírez on new art and, 342, 380–82; Enríquez on universalism and, 374, 379–80; Ichaso’s summary of, 342, 374, 386–89; Mañach on cultural policy and, 373, 387, 390–96, 396n1; Noé on individualistic art and continental identity synthesis and, 396–401, 664–65; Ramos’s inclusive view and, 374, 382–84, 384n1, 386; Roa on historical tradition of Latin America and, 374, 384–85; Torres Bodet on American themes and, 374–77, 377n1, 386

African populations in the Americas (blacks): Brazil’s national identity and, 305–6; Christianity and, 111; Cuba and, 174–76; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 642; existence of Latin America and, 147; fantastic imagery and, 864, 865; Iberia and, 125; immigration and, 818; melting pot model and, 139, 601; mestiçagem and, 326, 333, 335; Mestizos and, 150; Mexico and, 601; Peru and, 176; racial hierarchy and, 333; self-awareness for promotion of unity and, 277; unity and, 150, 158, 277

Aguirre, Emilio, 879–81

Aguirre, Lope de, 189–93

Alamán, Lucas, 459–64

Albers, Josef, 711, 872

Aleijadinho, 326, 649, 712

Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana; American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), 133, 141n1, 181, 737

alliances, within Latin America, 425, 449–51. See also spirit and spiritual unification; unity and unification

Almaraz, Carlos, 810, 828, 832, 926

Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel, 693–94, 698

Alvear, Marcelo T. de, 238

Amaral, Antonio Henrique, 915, 1086

Amaral, Aracy A., and topics discussed: Abstract Expressionism, 1088; Etsedrón as mestizo visual language, 596, 753, 754–58, 758nn1–4, 764; fantastic imagery, 859, 911–16; Latin American influences on internationalism, 769–70, 774–77; sociocultural context and differences in Brazil, 58, 741, 744–49, 953

Amaral, Tarsila do, 297, 412, 676, 915, 1086, 1094, 1095

America, as term of use, 88, 166, 605–6, 985, 986, 1085. See also the Americas

Americanism (americanismo), 129–30, 140, 227, 231, 294–95

American League, 201, 204–7. See also multi-homeland (multipatira)

Americanness, 343–44, 406, 409–13

Amerindians. See indigenous peoples and culture; specific indigenous cultures and peoples

Ancient Roots/New Visions, Chicago, 805, 899

Andrade, Mario de, 128–31, 131n1, 468–71, 469–70, 471n1, 773

Andrade, Oswald de, 56–57, 89–95, 95nn1–2, 297–300, 300nn1–6, 1076n14, 1086–87, 1094, 1097

Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons: the Americas and, 121–22, 127; differences and commonalities in the Americas and, 426–27; “gringo” as term of use and, 355, 361n3, 410, 601, 612–13, 614n3; Hispanic America’s differences and similarities with, 483–94; Latin/Saxon opposition and, 54, 117, 121–22, 155, 162, 251–52, 330–31; North America and, 126, 251–52; outsider/outcast paradigm and, 588; Puerto Rico as bridging culture between Hispanic Americans and, 457–58, 472–78; Puritanism and, 127–28, 263, 382, 445, 823; unity and, 150–51, 153, 155, 234. See also Europe; North America; United States; whites

Ante América (Facing the Americas) exhibit, Bogotá, 951–52, 1068–69, 1072–73, 1075, 1075n1

Anthropophagous Manifesto, 56–57, 297–300, 300nn1–6, 1076n14, 1086, 1094. See also cannibalism metaphor

the Antilles, 87, 117, 126, 135, 224, 389. See also Caribbean

APRA (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana; American Popular Revolutionary Alliance), 133, 141n1, 181, 737

archipelago metaphor, 427, 495

Archuleta, Felipe, 810, 927

ARCO Foundation, 833, 846, 847, 909

Argentina: activism and, 686–87; Argentinidad/Argentine-ness and, 736, 1085, 1095; art societies in, 550–51; avant-garde and, 669, 677; continental identity and, 57, 286–88, 388; cultural nationalism and, 341, 352; differences in Latin American art and, 667–78; economics and, 124–25, 339; European art influences and, 570–71, 582, 672, 695; historical context and, 1060–61; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; individualistic art and, 399; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1057–59; Romanticism and, 357; Rosas and, 464–65; spiritual unification and, 359–60, 494n7; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 667–78; unity and, 234–35, 252–53; universalism and, 388; U.S. art exhibitions and, 550, 553n2; U.S. involvement in, 277, 465. See also River Plate (Río de la Plata) region

Art Institute of Chicago, 434, 580–83, 859

Art of the Fantastic exhibit, Indianapolis, 795, 859–65, 911–17, 922–25, 928–29. See also fantastic imagery

art societies, 550–53

Austria, 113, 228–29, 442, 463

authenticity: Chicano art and, 1031; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 924–25, 928–29, 934n15, 1111, 1112–14; fantastic imagery and, 1074; of Latin American thought, 222–31, 331; myth of, 1005–6, 1070, 1073–74, 1101–2, 1111–12. See also mimicry (imitation)

avant-garde: literature and, 128, 231, 237; new art and, 340–41; new artists and, 343; pensador and, 43; synthesis of Latin American art and, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 698; underdevelopment and, 1098; universalism through difference and, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47. See also indigenous themes and/or avant-garde; specific styles of avant-garde

Avilés Ramírez, Eduardo, 342, 380–82

Aztec culture and Aztecs: overview and history of, 586, 602–4; colonial brutality and, 51, 188n5, 347; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 559; mural movement and, 1036–37; philosophies in Latin America and, 269; revolution and, 288, 463; spirit and, 533; universalism through difference and, 351, 381; U.S. appreciation of indigenous culture and, 533, 534

B

Baca, Judith, 976–78, 1038

Bacon, Francis, 51, 73–81, 91, 262, 677

Bahia, Brazil. See Etsedrón

Barnitz, Jacqueline, and topics discussed: differences and Latin American art, 587, 592, 662, 667–73; differences in Latin American art, 587, 590–91, 592, 662, 667–73; existence of Latin American art, 592, 662–73; uniqueness of Latin American art, 587, 592, 662, 667–73

Baroja, Pio, 296

Barr, Alfred H., Jr., 433, 558–61, 562–68, 591–92

Basel epistola (Columbus), 50–51, 62–67, 99

Bauhaus, 671, 711, 870

Bayón, Damián Carlos: on art and opportunities in U.S., 431, 535–40, 540n1; on differences in Latin American art, 590–91, 731–39; on individualistic art, 674–80; on Latin America as term of use, 731–32; Romero Brest’s critique of, 674, 680–84

Beardsley, John, 791, 793, 806–12, 833–44, 844n7, 925–26

Benítez, Marimar, 854, 857

Benjamin, Walter, 1063, 1089, 1101

Berni, Antonio, 657, 677, 915, 1057, 1097

“between two waters” perspective, 949, 1003

“The Big Stick” policy, 424, 438, 1044, 1085

Bingham, Hiram, 81–85

blacks (African populations in the Americas). See African populations in the Americas (blacks)

black slaves and slave trade, 111, 116–17, 184, 486, 601. See also African populations in the Americas (blacks)

Blanes, Juan Manuel, 657, 658, 694

Bolívar, Simón, and topics discussed: ethnicity and culture of Latin America, 53–54, 194–95, 511–12; North-South opposition, 160; political unity, 53–54, 193–200, 229, 234–35, 459–60, 701, 703

Bolivia, 109, 120, 124–25, 157, 196, 417, 551, 695

Bolton, Herbert E., 137

Bomfim, Manoel de, and topics discussed: colonial brutality, 54–55, 215–22, 222n1, 332–33, 454–55; conservatism, 54, 221, 334, 335n4; continental identity, 301, 335; European concept of South America, 452–54, 457n1; holistic education system, 55, 241–45, 332; independence, 54–55, 333–35, 335n4; Monroe Doctrine and Latin America, 452–56, 456nn2–3; superficial unity of Latin America, 58–59, 224, 301–6, 306n3; U.S. protector/protectorate relationship, 452, 455–56

Bonevardi, Marcelo, 662–63, 666, 667, 872

border culture: Culture Wars and, 790, 945, 1019–21; immigration and, 610; Multiculturalism and, 45, 946–47, 958–69, 969n1; racial mixing and, 946–47, 970–71, 980

border culture as practice: ethics and, 993–94, 996, 1002n51; ethnicity and, 989, 994, 1000nn30–31; globalization effects on local representation and, 953–54, 1099–1104; ideology between continents and, 45, 947, 948, 982–97, 997nn1–2, 998n3–4, 998nn6–8, 1000n26, 1000nn30–31; immigrant experience and, 983, 998n3, 998n6; Puerto Ricans of New York and, 995–97; racial issues and, 989–90, 1000n30. See also border culture

The Border/La Frontera exhibition, Balboa Park, San Diego, 1019–28, “borderness,” 985–86

Borges, Jorge Luis: on aesthetics, 1063, 1088–89; appropriation and, 931; Argentinidad and, 736; avant-garde and, 677; cannibalism metaphor and, 1072; continental identity and, 1069, 1072; on cultural nationalism, 1085; fantastic imagery and, 915, 923; Far-Western cultures and, 186; on folklore motifs, 1095; labyrinth motif and, 1091, 1125; writings of, 283, 308, 1008

Botero, Fernando, 664, 669, 679, 772, 855, 864, 872–74, 915

Boves, José Thomás, 202

Braque, Georges, 536, 697, 705, 861

Braudel, Fernance, 53, 142–49, 148n1, 171–72

Brazil: overview of, 57–58; activism and, 671; African populations in, 158, 175–76, 759–62, 1095; Americanism and, 332–35; black slave trade and, 116–17; Catholicism and, 116–17, 184; caudillos and, 329–30; conservatism and, 54, 221, 334, 335n4; the cordial man and, 309–10; cultural autonomy of, 58, 324–26; differences and, 735; disconnection of elites and, 58, 307–9; economics and, 124–25, 339, 657–58; as European extension, 325; Hispanic America relationship with, 58, 327–35, 953; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; Iberian influences in, 58, 311–17, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5; independence of, 220; Indigenism and, 738, 1093–94; Indo-American culture and, 327, 329; isolationism and, 58, 440–48, 448n2; Jesuits and, 90, 92, 263, 300n1, 321, 383; Latin/Saxon opposition and, 117, 330–31; literature of, 58, 327–35; Lusitanian Americans and, 157, 169, 171, 327, 329; as melting pot, 325–26; mestiçagem and, 326, 333, 335; Mestiços and, 324–25, 329, 333, 495–96; Modernism and, 297, 325, 748; national identity of, 303–6, 306n3; Pan Americanism and, 330–31; Pindorama as name for, 299, 300n4; potential of, 109–10; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1057–59; Revista de antropofagia and, 297, 1076n14; Romanticism and, 90, 327; sociocultural context for differences in, 58, 741, 744–49; superficial unity in Latin America and, 58–59, 224, 301–6, 306n3; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; Tupinambá/Tupi-Guarani and, 297–99, 300n1, 363, 1088; uniqueness of Latin American and, 670; unity and, 58–59, 157, 224, 252–53, 301–6, 306n3; U.S. involvement in and, 277. See also Etsedrón; Iberian America; Mestizos; specific rulers

Brazilian art and artists: activism and, 671; art societies in, 551; European art influences and, 572, 642, 672; individualistic art and, 699, 867, 869; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 867, 869–70; Picasso’s artworks as influence in, 417; sociocultural context and differences in, 58, 741, 744–49; traveling exhibitions of artworks and, 577, 578; U.S. sanctioned artists from, 554. See also Brazil

Breton, André, 690, 863, 921, 1084n3

Briseño, Rolando, 807, 828

Bronx Museum of the Arts, 791, 851–58, 902, 910n2, 1005, 1084n6

Buarque de Holanda, Sérgio, 58, 311–17, 318–23, 321–22, 323n3, 323n5

Buntinx, Gustavo, 954, 955–56, 1117–22

C

Caicedo, José Maria Torres, 54, 200–208, 208nn1–2, 950

Calvinism, 90, 92, 94, 136, 315

Calvo, Charles (Carlos): biographical information about, 105, 106, 166–67; on European intervention, 110, 167–68, 207, 446; Latin America as term used by, 52, 105, 164, 166–69, 168; “Latin race” as term in use and, 52, 167; Napoleon III and, 42, 52, 105, 106–7, 167; on potential of Latin America, 42, 105, 107–10

Camnitzer, Luis, 729, 873–74, 931, 1019n20, 1091–92

Cancel, Luis R., 791, 851–58, 902, 1005

Candido, Antonio, 58, 327–35

cannibalism metaphor: Anthropophagous Manifesto and, 56–57, 297–300, 300nn1–6, 1076n14, 1094, 1097; globalization of art and, 1127; the other and, 1086; para-definitions and, 1086–89, 1091; Postmodernism and, 1072, 1076n14; Surrealism and, 1097

capitalism, 92, 483–85, 493n4, 797, 816, 877n4, 984–85, 1101. See also economics

CARA, Los Angeles (Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation, Los Angeles), 808, 903

Cardoza y Aragón, Luis, 343–44, 406, 409–13

Caribbean: African-Caribbean art and, 1128; Caribe/Caraiba and, 298, 300n2; contemporary art and, 1127; Créole culture and, 1076n7; immigrant experience and, 983, 1018n10; as Latin American, 1004–5, 1017n3; local art scene reinvention and, 1118–19; racial mixing and, 513n3. See also specific countries

Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada: overview of, 952; Herkenhoff’s para-definitions for postmodern narratives and, 952–53, 1077, 1085–99; Mesquita on metaphoric cartography for contemporary art and, 952, 953, 1077–84, 1083n1, 1084n3, 1084nn5–6. See also transnational identity

Casanovas, Martí, 57, 286, 289–92, 338, 364–65

Casas, Mel, 879–83

Casimir, Jean, 149–55

Castro, Amilcar de, 853, 1089, 1090

Castro, Fidel, 151, 174, 612, 822, 1120

Catholicism: Brazil and, 116–17, 184; conversion to, 62, 64–65, 67; Cuba and, 116–17; fantastic imagery and, 863–64; Mexico and, 181; sociocultural structures and, 170, 181, 822–24; Spanish colonialism and, 191; spirit of, 488; syncretism and, 326, 792. See also Christianity

Catlin, Stanton L., 590–91, 656–62, 663

caudillos (caudillismo): Brazil and, 329–30;

García Calderón on, 120–21, 124–25, 222, 224–26, 229; Vasconcelos on, 245, 427, 461–62

Central America: overview and use of term, 171; African populations in, 158; art and artists in, 1007–10, 1013; economics and, 124; immigration from, 983, 1004, 1007; Mexico culture influences on art of, 582; potential of, 109; U.S. involvement in, 277, 899, 918. See also specific countries

Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, 913, 1073, 1105, 1107–8

Centro Cultural de la Raza, La Jolla, 1019–28

Cézanne, Paul, 344, 349, 415

Chapultepec Agreement, 504–8, 509n4

Chateaubriand, François René, Viscount of, 238

Chávez, Patricio, 947, 1019–28

Chávez Morado, José, 519, 523

Chevalier, Michel, 52, 111–17, 117nn1–3, 168

Chicago State University Art Gallery. See Hispanic American Art in Chicago exhibition

Chicano art and artists: overview of, 588, 589, 634–37, 1039–41; immigration and, 961; El Movimiento and, 45, 949–50, 976, 1028–42, 1041n3; mural movement and, 809, 976–77, 1036, 1038; rasquachismo and, 949, 976, 1028, 1031–34; syncretism and, 589, 635–37, 949. See also Cuban Americans; Hispanic American art and artists; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans); specific exhibitions

Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation (CARA), Los Angeles, 808, 903

The Chicano Movement (El Movimiento), 45, 949–50, 1028–42, 1041n3

Chicanos (Mexican Americans): Christianity and, 602, 614–19; Civil Rights Movement in U.S. and, 587, 588, 600, 790, 796–97, 888, 984, 1022; cultural nationalism and, 621, 626, 629–30, 632; differences and, 819–21; discrimination against, 983, 998n4; duality and, 1027; Greco-Latin culture and, 618, 620, 620n3; historical context and, 589, 621–22, 625–26, 630; identity in U.S. and, 588, 600–614, 614nn1–6, 615, 880, 886, 948; immigrant experience and, 612–13, 621, 626, 630–32; Indianism and, 621, 625–27, 629–30; Indigenism and, 626, 636; melting pot model and, 612, 635; mimicry and, 602, 884; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1007–9; as the other, 1039; outsider/outcast paradigm and, 822, 880, 883, 926–27, 972; overview and use of term, 588, 795–96; philosophies in Latin America context for, 589, 623–33, 633n3, 634n13; as La Plebe, 600, 601, 609–10, 614n1; population growth statistics and, 45, 947–48, 983–84, 1004, 1039; as La Raza, 600, 601–2, 608–11; la raza cósmica and, 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3. See also Chicano art and artists; Mestizos; new race(s); skepticism about Latin American art

Chile: activism and, 671; art societies in, 551; colonial brutality in, 189; creation of a continent and, 228; differences and, 735; economics and, 124–25; European art influences and, 582, 642, 673, 695; historical context and, 1061; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; independence of, 220; Indigenism and, 135; potential of, 109–10; unity and, 157, 196; U.S. exhibitions of artists and, 830–31; U.S. involvement in, 277

Chocano, José Santos, 145, 149n4, 294–95

Christianity: African populations and, 111; black slave trade and, 184, 486; conversion of indigenous peoples and, 62, 64–65, 67; Counter-Reformation and, 89–90, 92–94, 792, 820; France and Latin America links and, 111–12, 114–17; Reformation and, 89–90, 792, 817, 820, 822; syncretism and, 184, 326. See also specific religions

Cinetismo, 677, 678

Civil Rights Movement in U.S., 586–87, 588, 600, 790, 796–97, 888, 984, 1022. See also United States

Clifford, James, 930, 1103, 1109–10

Cold War, 434, 574, 902, 1088, 1095

Colombia: activism and, 670–71; African populations in, 158; art societies in, 552; European art influences and, 672, 673; naming of, 165; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1058; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 772; unity and, 157, 195–97, 235–36; U.S. exhibitions of artists from, 830–31

colonialism: brutality and, 54–55, 215–22, 222n1, 454–55, 864; continental identity in context of internationalism and, 594–95; decolonization process and, 164, 175, 595, 722, 729, 1031, 1087; fantastic imagery and, 864; mestizaje and, 511; mythologies and, 261–63; new artists inclusion of, 343, 417–19; unity and, 160–62. See also evils of origin concept; neo-colonialism

Columbus, Christopher, 50–51, 62–67, 99, 247–48, 1027

Concretism, 724, 748, 853, 860–61, 914, 1090. See also Neo-Concretism

Conference on Inter-American Relations in the Field of Art (1939), 432, 541–47, 545–52, 550–53. See also U.S. collections

Conference on Studies in Latin American Art at MoMA (1945), 433–34, 562–68, 568–74, 591–92. See also Museum of Modern Art (MoMA); U.S. collections

Congress of the Young People of Colombia, 231–36

conservatism, 54, 221, 334, 335n4, 1010

Constructivism, 340, 676, 852, 914

consumerism, 595–96, 705–14, 711, 725n2, 966–69, 1057–58, 1097. See also economics

Contemporary Art and Literature in Latin America, University of Texas at Austin. See symposium in Austin in 1975

continent(s): “discovery” of, 50–51, 62–67, 96–99, 100, 247–48, 1027; education about, 108; France and, 105–6; labyrinth and, 1091; of semi-, 919, 1071. See also the Americas; North America; South America

continental identity (Latin American identity): overview of, 57, 286; Andrade on, 56–57, 297–300, 468–71; anthropophagy and, 56–57, 297–300; Argentina and, 57, 286–88; art of Latin America and, 57, 286, 292–300; Bomfim and, 301, 335; Braudel on, 144, 146; Casanovas on, 57, 286, 289–92; Criollismo and, 294, 296n1; Freitas on, 468–71; Greco-Latin culture and, 290–92; historical context and, 938–39; Indianism and, 309–10, 621, 625–27, 629–30; individualistic art’s synthesis with, 396–401, 698; Indo-American culture and, 57, 286, 288, 289–92, 294; of Latin America discourse, 432, 541; Orrego on, 57, 286–88, 292–300; Sánchez on, 132–33; U.S. and, 288. See also continent(s); continental identity conferences and debates; differences and commonalities in the Americas; national identity; transnational identity

continental identity and new art, 586–88. See also Chicanos (Mexican Americans); continental identity conferences and debates; continental identity in context of internationalism; skepticism about Latin American art

continental identity conferences and debates: overview of, 595–97; 13th Sáo Paulo Biennial and, 596, 753, 759, 763–67, 769. See also Etsedrón; First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists (Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos); symposium in Austin in 1975; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo; specific conferences and symposia

continental identity in context of internationalism: overview of, 592–93; Acha on sociocultural structure of Third World and, 594–95, 714–18; Amaral on cultural nationalism and, 747; Bayón on differences and, 731–39; Latin America as term of use and, 731–32; Lippard on Multiculturalism and, 973–74; Mañach on local and universal in art and, 392; Manrique on individualistic art and, 593, 594, 692–700, 700n1, 701n2; Manrique on uniqueness of Latin American art and, 593, 701–5, 705n1; Mexican artists and, 876–77; Noé on self-image and invention in art and, 593–94, 665, 725–31, 1096; Rasmussen on exhibitions in U.S. and, 876–77; Traba on consumerism of U.S. art and, 595–96, 705–14, 725n2; Traba on individualistic art and, 593, 595, 645–49, 688–92; Ybarra-Frausto on mural movement and, 1037; Yurkievich on specificity and sociocultural structures and, 594–95, 702, 719–25, 725n2. See also status of Latin American art

Continuation Committee, Conference on Inter-American Relations in the Field of Art (1939), 432, 545–52. See also Conference on Inter-American Relations in the Field of Art (1939)

Cordero, Juan Nepomuceno, 346–48, 348n1

the cosmic race (la raza cósmica), 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3, 685

Costa Firme. See Venezuela

Costa Rica, 443, 494n7, 1119

Costumbrist (costumbrismo), 523, 645, 691, 734, 780

Counter-Reformation, 89–90, 92–94, 792, 820

Couto, Ribeiro, 309–10

Créole/creole and creole-ization, 303, 454, 545, 1076n7, 1124

Criollismo, 294, 296n1, 526, 695, 719. See also regionalism

Criollos and criollo: overview of, 119, 1070, 1076n7; avant-garde and Latin American synthesis and, 356; Latin America as term of use and, 164–65; as new American, 524, 525–26; new artists and, 402–6; Nuestra América and, 209–10; self-awareness for promotion of unity and, 277; spirit and, 488–89; unity and, 151, 277

criticism issues, 433, 562–68, 587–88, 591–92, 793–94, 808, 845–50. See also specific conferences and symposia

Cruz-Diez, Carlos, 678, 679, 720, 872

Cuba (Juana): African populations in, 174–76; art societies in, 552; black slave trade and, 116–17; Catholicism and, 116–17; Columbus’s “discovery” of, 50, 63, 87; Cuban artists and, 802, 804–5, 830–31, 868; Cuban Revolution and, 174, 586, 1034, 1095, 1129; differences and, 735; French art influences and, 571; indigenous people and, 1093; as Latin American, 1004–5, 1017n3; Latin-ness and, 174–75; modernity and, 821; murals and, 400; patronage and, 566; political art and, 393; traveling exhibitions and, 578–79; U.S. involvement in, 277, 425, 449; Utopia and, 1099. See also specific writers

Cuban Americans, 587, 790, 802, 804–5, 822, 830–31, 868. See also Chicano art and artists; Cuba (Juana); Hispanic art and artists

Cuban art and artists, 802, 804–5, 830–31, 868. See also Chicano art and artists; Cuba (Juana); Hispanic art and artists

Cubism: overview of, 415, 724; devaluation of, 975; new art and, 340, 412; new artists and, 344, 414–17, 676; universalism and, 349. See also avant-garde (cosmopolitan); specific artists

Cuevas, José Luis, 582, 664, 672–73, 751, 1088

Culture Wars, 790, 945, 1019–21. See also border culture

Cunha, Euclides da, 90, 332

D

Dadaism, 340, 350

Dalí, Salvador, 539, 1084n3

Dallas Museum of Art, 902, 910n2, 922, 923, 925

Day, Holliday T., 795, 859–65, 922–23

The Decade Show, New York, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20

decolonization process, 164, 175, 595, 722, 729, 1031

Deira, Ernesto, 397, 662–64, 666, 667, 677, 873

De Kooning, Willem, 538, 677, 707–8, 870, 871

De La Vega, Jorge, 397, 664–65, 873, 915

Derrida, Jacques, 987, 1121–22

de Staël, Madame (Anne-Louise-Germaine), 136

deterritorialization, 959–60, 1098

Dewey, John, 485, 485n5

dictatorships, art, 1088

“discovery(ies)”/re-discovery(ies): of continents, 50–51, 62–67, 96–99, 100, 247–48, 1027; Europe’s need for, 271–72, 274n1; of Latin American art, 966–69; of Machu Picchu, 81–85

Dominican Republic, 425, 552

Dos Ciudades/Two Cities project, 1022–23

Dubuffet, Jean, 539–40, 677

Duchamp, Marcel, 708, 1090

E

Eco, Umberto, 678, 680, 683

economics: Argentina and, 124–25; Bolivia and, 120, 124–25; Brazil and, 124–25; capitalism and, 92, 483–85, 493n4, 797, 816, 877n4, 984–85, 1101; Central America and, 124; Chile and, 124–25; construct of Latin America and, 52, 118–25, 302; Ecuador and, 120; France and, 42, 52, 105–10; Haiti and, 124; Iberian America and, 124–25; immigrants and, 963, 977, 1025; in Latin America, 52; Paraguay and, 120, 124; patronage and, 431, 434, 566, 658; Peru and, 120, 124–25; Poincaré on, 52, 118–23; Portugal’s commercial exploitation in the Americas and, 321–22; potential of Latin America and, 42, 105, 107–10; Uruguay and, 124; U.S.-Mexican relations and, 797–98, 901–10, 910nn1–2; Venezuela and, 120. See also caudillos (caudillismo); consumerism

Ecuador: art dictatorships and, 1088; art societies in, 552; economics and, 120; individualistic art and, 699; mestizo art schools in, 401, 1093; potential of, 109; traveling exhibitions and, 580; unity and, 157, 235

Eder, Rita, 590–92, 673, 684–87, 687nn1–2, 771

education system, as holistic, 55, 241–45

Ehrenberg, Felipe, 897–901

El Salvador, 183, 443, 552, 906–7, 981n8

The Emergent Decade exhibit, 591, 652–56, 663, 669

encomienda, 101, 104n4

England: black slave trade and, 111; colonialism and, 114, 116, 484, 493n1; Latin American nations’ independence and, 446; Monroe Doctrine and, 439, 447; Reformation and, 93; sociocultural structures and, 228, 484–85. See also Europe; specific rulers

Enlightenment, 484, 792, 822, 893, 917, 944

Enríquez, Carlos, 374, 379–80

Esteves, Sandra Maria (“not-neither”), 949, 986–87, 994

Estridentismo, 341, 349

ethnocentrism: Latin American, 771, 974; Postmodernism and, 959, 964; the West and, 629, 656, 799, 931, 962, 965

Etsedrón: overview of, 596, 670, 753–54, 764–65; Acha on hostile interruption of art and, 596, 753–54, 759–63; Afro-Brazilian culture and, 759–62; Amaral on mestizo visual language and, 596, 753, 754–58, 758nn1–4, 764; Felguérez on individualistic art and, 596, 754, 767–69; as Happening, 766; primitivism and, 757–58, 758n4; Torrens on individualistic art and, 596, 671, 754, 763–66. See also activism and art; Brazil; continental identity conferences and debates

Eurindia, 133, 341, 352–60, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660

Euro-American curatorial approach: overview of, 798–99, 859, 917–33, 933n5, 934nn15–16, 1074; Modernism and, 920–31, 937; naïve style as ethnicity and, 792, 828–29, 843, 926–27; revision of, 930–33, 931, 1014–15. See also Europe; First World; U.S. exhibitions

Europe: the Americas as necessity for, 271–72, 274n1; Brazil’s effects on, 325; concept of South America in, 452–54, 457n1; continental identity and, 286–88; Eurocentric frameworks and, 55, 236–40, 240n1, 592, 662–73; Greco-Latin culture and, 290–92; indigenous people representations and, 1093; intervention from, 110, 207, 446–47; Latin American art as under influences of, 570–72, 582, 648, 659–60, 672–73; migration from, 122, 425–26, 818; mimicry of ideology and, 100, 125, 218, 234–35, 270–71, 712, 787; Monroe Doctrine and, 424, 438–41, 447; as the other, 930; patronage and, 658; philosophical identity of Latin America and, 266, 268–74; sociocultural structures and, 233, 484–85; trans-culturation and, 919–20, 923, 924, 933n5, 1109; the West’s origins and, 111–12. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons; Euro-American curatorial approach; specific countries

evils of origin concept, 54–55, 215–22, 222n1, 332–33, 454–55. See also colonialism

exotic and exoticism: Americanism/Americanness and, 140, 294, 376, 388, 412–13; disconnection in Latin America and, 307–9; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 928–29, 967; European art influences and, 642–43; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; fantastic imagery exhibitions and, 795, 859–65, 915–16; globalization and, 968; homogenization of art and, 826, 828, 843; indigenous themes and avant-garde synthesis and, 406, 408; Latin America as, 913, 918; MoMA exhibitions’ avoidance of, 875–76; the other and, 914, 1074, 1123, 1125–26; Postmodernism and, 952; the primitive and, 938, 967; self-, 1123, 1125–26; Surrealism and, 921; U.S. collections and exhibitions and, 434, 572, 581–82, 918, 1013, 1018n17; Utopia and, 262

Expressionism, 340. See also Abstract Expressionism; specific artists

ex uno plures (out of one, many), 44, 54, 202

F

Facing the Americas (Ante América) exhibit, Bogotá, 951–52, 1068–69, 1072–73, 1075, 1075n1

fantastic imagery: aesthetic values and identity and, 859, 911–16; African populations in the Americas and, 864, 865; authenticity and, 1074; Catholicism and, 863–64; colonialism and, 864; exoticism and, 795, 859–65, 915–16; geography of Latin America and, 865; in literature, 915, 923; memories and, 923; Mestizos and, 864; the other and, 914, 927–30; pre-Columbian culture and, 864; representations in exhibitions and, 795, 859–65, 922–23; Surrealism and, 863, 912, 1080, 1084n3. See also Art of the Fantastic exhibit, Indianapolis; Magic Realism

Fauvism, 340, 412, 724

Felguérez, Manuel, 596, 754, 767–69

Ferdinand II, 50, 62–67

Ferrer, Rafael, 757–58, 810, 830, 874

Ferrero, Guillermo, 287

Figari, Pedro, 56, 277–83, 591, 640, 676, 697, 915

First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists (Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos), 596–97, 671, 777–86. See also continental identity conferences and debates

First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo. See Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo

First World, 46, 913–14, 946, 959, 1061–62, 1075n1, 1088. See also Euro-American curatorial approach; Europe; North America; Third World; the West

Flores, Juan, 45, 947, 948, 982–97, 997nn1–2, 998n3–4, 998nn6–8, 1000n26, 1000nn30–31

folklore motifs: African, 158, 175, 762; Brazilian, 158, 326, 762, 767, 769, 772; Chicanos and, 636; Cuban, 175; cultural nationalism and, 1103; ethnicity and, 927; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 830, 831, 926, 927, 1039–40; identity in art and, 636, 641, 1130; limitations of, 366, 372, 590, 638–40, 643–44, 675, 679, 689, 717, 772; local art and, 702; Mexican art and, 398, 520, 885; El Movimiento and, 1031–32; naïve style and, 344, 360; primitivism and, 831; regional, 434, 525

France: affinity between Latin America and, 111; art influences and, 570–71, 642–43; balance of power and, 113–14; black slave trade and, 111; colonialism and, 56, 114; economic potential of Latin America and, 42, 52, 105–10; Eurocentric frameworks in, 55, 236–40, 240n1; intervention in Mexico by, 111–13, 117, 117n3; Latin America as term of use and, 56, 166–70, 172, 181, 1117; Latin-ness and, 167–68, 181; “Latin race” as term in use and, 106; Mexico’s invasion by, 42, 52, 111–17, 117nn1–3, 167–70, 181, 467; religion as link between Latin America and, 111–12, 114–17; Western Christian civilization origins and, 111–12. See also Europe

Francia, José Gaspar Rodríguez de, 120, 333, 443, 464–65

Frank, Waldo: on differences and similarities in the Americas, 483–94, 493n1, 493n4–5, 494n8; reductive approach of, 135; on spiritual unification and aesthetic values, 55–56, 255–61, 483, 639; Utopian vision of, 259–61

Freitas, Newton, 468–71

Freyre, Gilberto, 58, 427, 494–97, 693

Frigerio, Ismael, 828, 830

La Frontera/The Border exhibition, Balboa Park, San Diego, 1019–28

Futurism, 349–50, 676, 724, 738, 1057, 1095

G

Gamarra, José, 916, 1094

Gaos, José, 135

García, Rupert, 797, 886–97

García Calderón, Francisco: on Americanism, 227, 231; on caudillismo, 120–21, 124–25, 222, 224–26, 229; on construct of Latin America, 118–25, 302; on creation of a continent, 226–30; literature of, 223, 224; reductive approach of, 135; on social inequalities, 124; on Utopia, 228, 230

García Canclini, Néstor, 919, 930, 954–55, 1056–66, 1071

Garza, Carmen Lomas, 807, 828, 831, 927

Gauguin, Paul, 344, 407, 413, 418, 421, 642, 691

geography of Latin America: overview of, 1091–92; Braudel on, 144–46; Casimir on, 152; differences in, 733, 735; fantastic imagery and, 865; Far-Western cultures and, 179–80, 182–83; insularization and, 1090–91; unity and, 156; Vasconcelos on, 250–51

geometric abstraction, 792, 831, 838, 869–73

geometric art, 362, 794, 852, 863, 923–24. See also Neo-geometricism

Gerchman, Ruebens, 670, 757–58, 1097

Germany, 93, 118, 121–22, 125, 224, 228, 484–85. See also Europe

Gili Gaya, Samuel, 457–58

globalization: exoticism and, 968; global capitalism and, 944; global citizenship and, 138–39; global society and, 720–21, 749, 913, 947, 951–52; local representation and, 953–54, 1099–1104; Multiculturalism and, 944, 945, 1015–16; Postmodernism and, 944, 951; underdevelopment and, 1098; Utopia and, 1061

Goldman, Shifra M., and topics discussed: art dictatorships, 1088; Chicano art, 588, 589, 634–37; homogenization of Hispanic art, 792–93, 807, 826–32, 832n1, 843–44, 844n7; syncretism, 589, 635–37, 948; U.S.-Mexican socioeconomic and political relations, 797–98, 901–10, 910nn1–2, 918, 929

Gómez-Peña, Guillermo, and topics discussed: America, as term of use, 986; Multiculturalism and border culture, 45, 946–48, 958–69, 969n1, 996, 1007, 1017n1, 1019, 1039; the other and Postmodernism, 797, 886–97

Góngora, Leonel, 263, 664, 915

González, Beatriz, 872, 915

Graham, Robert, 810, 826, 827–28, 832, 838

Greco-Latin culture, 290–92, 618, 620, 620n3

Grieder, Terence, 590–91, 656–62, 663

“gringo” as term of use, 355, 361n3, 410, 601, 612–13, 614n3

Gris, Juan, 349, 536, 697, 871

GRONK, 807, 828

Guatemala: Americanness in new art and, 343–44, 406, 409–13; indigenous themes and avant-garde and, 343, 406–9; national identity of, 343–44, 406, 409–13; unity and, 157, 235. See also Mayan culture and Mayans

Guayasamín, Oswaldo, 591, 642–44, 646, 691–92, 700, 1088

Gutierrez, Marina, 811, 830

Guyana, 158, 179, 182–83, 300n2, 971

H

Haiti, 124, 425

half-worlds in the Americas, 483. See also differences and commonalities in the Americas

Happenings, 594, 706, 708–9, 716, 766, 873–74, 1031, 1048

Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 135–36, 141n1, 737

Henry VIII, 90–91, 848

Herkenhoff, Paulo, 952–53, 1077, 1085–99

Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans: overview and as term of use, 56, 169, 181, 802, 804, 827, 925, 934n16; the Americas as half-worlds and, 426–27; differences and similarities between Anglo-Saxon and, 483–94, 934n16; Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Iberian America relationship with, 58, 253, 327–35, 440–48, 448n2, 694–95, 953; Iberian urban planning and, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5; Mestizos and, 150; Puerto Rico as bridging culture between Anglo-Saxons and, 457–58, 472–78; sociocultural structures and, 252; Spain’s sociocultural influence in, 56–57, 283–86; spirit and, 488–89, 494n7; unity and, 157; Utopia and, 480. See also differences and commonalities in the Americas; Iberian America; Latin America; Spanish America and Spanish Americans; specific countries

Hispanic American art and artists: as art category, 802–4; Eurocentric frameworks and, 1040; Hispanic America as term of use and, 802, 804, 842–43; Latin American art as term of use and, 842; Latin American as term of use and, 842; Latino/a as term of use and, 802, 842; marginalization of, 793–94, 808, 845–50, 853, 855; scholarship issues and, 793–94, 808, 845–50; as term of use, 802–3, 804–6, 806n2, 925, 934n16; women artists and, 811–12. See also Chicano art and artists; specific exhibitions

Hispanic American Art in Chicago exhibition: Hispanic America as term of use and, 802, 804, 842–43; Latin American as term of use and, 842; Latino/a as term of use and, 802, 842; Sorell on Hispanic American art as term of use and, 802–3, 804–6, 806n2; Weitz on Hispanic American art category and, 802–4; women artists and, 811–12. See also representations in exhibitions

Hispanic art and artists: aesthetic values and, 791, 806–7, 809–12, 839–41; ethnic identity labels and, 802–4, 805; European art influences and, 829; homogenization of, 792–93, 807, 826–32, 832n1, 843–44, 844n7, 1082, 1084n6, 1100, 1103; U.S. exhibitions and, 791, 802, 804–5, 830–31, 839. See also aesthetic values and identity; Cuban art and artists; Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)

Hispanic Art in the United States exhibit, Houston: overview of, 791, 806–9, 830, 902; Chicano as term of use and, 842; criteria for art in traveling exhibitions and, 899; ethnic identity labels and, 830, 843, 844n7, 927; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 922, 925–28; exoticism and, 1013, 1018n17; Goldman on homogenization of Hispanic art and, 792–93, 807, 826–32, 832n1, 843–44, 844n7; Hispanic America as term of use and, 802, 804, 842–43; Latin American as term of use and, 842; Latino/a as term of use and, 802, 842; Livingston and Beardsley on aesthetic values of Hispanic art and, 791, 806–7, 809–12, 925–26; Livingston and Beardsley on curatorial practices and critiques of, 793, 808, 833–44, 844n7; Marzio on marginalization and scholarship issues and, 793–94, 808, 845–50; Paz on Hispanic art and sociocultural structures and, 791–92, 807, 812–25; primitivism and, 830–31, 1013, 1018n17; women artists and, 831

homogenization: of the Americas, 52–53, 126–28, 135, 176, 178, 393; Argentina and, 126, 135; Brazil and, 126, 135; Chile and, 126, 135; construct of Latin America and, 52–53, 126–28, 135, 176, 178; of differences through Multiculturalism, 1007–10; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 917, 922, 925, 930, 1102–3; exoticism and, 826, 828, 843; of Hispanic art, 792–93, 807, 826–32, 832n1, 843–44, 844n7, 1082, 1084n6, 1100, 1103; of Latin America, 934n16; unity and, 154. See also differences in Latin American art

Honduras, 87, 443, 552

Hughes, Charles Evans, 134

I

Ibarguren, Carlos, 278

Iberia: African populations in, 125; Brazil and, 58, 311–17; latinismo of, 130; urban planning in Spanish America and, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5; Western Christian civilization origins and, 111–12. See also Portugal; Spain

Iberian America: overview and use of term, 1117–18; economics and, 124–25, 444–45; Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Hispanic America’s relationship with, 58, 253, 327–35, 440–48, 448n2, 694–95, 953; Indo-Iberian America and, 1090; Latin American art critiques and, 685; “Latin Europe” links with, 111–13; reductive approach and, 171; sociocultural structures and, 181; unity and, 151, 157, 252–53. See also Brazil; Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans; Iberia; Latin America

Ichaso, Francisco, 342, 374, 386–89

Images of Mexico, Dallas, 902, 910n2, 922, 923, 925

imagination, 593–94, 665, 725–31, 1044, 1053n3. See also memory(ies)

imitation (mimicry). See mimicry (imitation)

immigration and immigrants: Caribbean and, 983, 1018n10; from Europe, 122, 425–26, 818; international, 1124; from Third World, 1061–62, 1115n4; U. S. policies and, 1020–21, 1024–26; “whitening” and, 122, 425–26

Impressionism, 349, 649, 659, 712, 723–24. See also specific artists

Inca culture and Incas: as indigenous ancestors, 162, 586; Machu Picchu and, 81–85; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 559; philosophies in Latin America and, 269; spirit and, 359, 533; universalism through difference and, 351, 381. See also Mexico; Peru

Indianapolis Museum of Art, 795, 859–65, 902, 922–23

Indianism, 309–10, 621, 625–27, 629–30. See also Indigenism

Indians. See indigenous peoples and culture

Indigenism, 140, 626, 636, 669–70, 731, 736–38, 752. See also Americanism (americanismo); Indianism

indigenous peoples and culture: overview and history of, 602–4; aesthetic values of, 135; Amerindians and, 131; Brazil’s national identity and, 305–6; civilization process and, 55, 163, 240; colonial brutality and, 218–20; conversion of, 62, 64–65, 67; disappearance of, 131; encomienda and, 101, 104n4; ethnic unity and, 54, 231–36; existence of Latin America and, 144, 146–47; as identity in art, 638–42; Indianism and, 309–10, 621, 625–27, 629–30; invention of Latin America and, 98–99, 102–3; Jesuits and, 321; Lusitanian Americans and, 157, 169, 171, 327, 329; marginalization of, 181–82; melting pot model and, 139, 601–2; mestiçagem and, 326, 333, 335; Mestizos and, 150, 601–2; mural movement and, 1036–37; mythologies and, 261–63; national identity and, 305–6, 737; Nuestra América and, 209–10; para-definitions and, 1093; philosophies in Latin America and, 625; racial hierarchy and, 333; Romanticism and, 357; spiritual unification and, 359; Surrealism and, 398; unity and, 153, 157–58, 163; U.S.-Mexico border and, 1026–27. See also Indigenism; pre-Columbian culture and peoples; the primitive; specific indigenous peoples

indigenous themes and/or avant-garde: limitations of, 340, 341, 366–67; new artists’ synthesis of, 343, 344, 406–9, 414–17; Picasso and, 344, 414–17; universalism through difference and, 351. See also indigenous peoples and culture

Indo-American culture: overview and use of term, 141, 181–82; Brazil and, 327, 329; continental identity and, 57, 286, 288, 289–92, 294; new art and, 414. See also Mestiços; mestizaje; Mestizos

Indo-Iberian America, and para-definitions, 1090. See also Iberian America

Indology, 56, 245–55

installation practice, in U.S. art museums, 45, 949–50, 1042–55, 1053nn2–3, 1054n14, 1055n20

internationalism and continental identity. See continental identity in context of internationalism; Modernism (modernistas; Modernismo); Postmodernism

International PEN Clubs, 138, 141n5

Isthmus of Panama, 126, 135, 189, 198, 199–200, 907, 988

Italy, 111–12, 113–14, 168, 228, 229

J

Janus-faced dilemma. See continental identity in context of internationalism

Jesuits: overview of, 94, 317; Brazil and, 90, 92, 263, 300n1, 321, 383; Mestizos and, 493n6; North America and, 258; Paraguay and, 263, 1093

Jiménez, Luis, 807, 810, 826, 828, 830, 874

Johns, Jasper, 871

Juana (Cuba). See Cuba (Juana)

Juárez, Benito, 167, 170, 459, 461, 463–67, 610, 614n5

K

Kahlo, Frida, 890, 915, 921, 924, 934n15, 1092, 1099

Kant, Immanuel, 207–8

Keyserling, Hermann, 135, 139

Kinetic art, 677, 686, 750, 872, 914

Kirstein, Lincoln, 431–32, 558–61, 1118

Klee, Paul, 711

Klintowitz, Jacob, 771, 774, 777

Kluge, Alexander, 991–92

Kuitca, Guiliermo, 874, 916, 1077, 1085, 1089, 1091

L

Laclau, Ernesto, 1045–46, 1052

LACMA (Los Angeles County Museum of Art), 543, 799n1, 810, 832

Lam, Wifredo: abstract forms and indigenous culture and, 719; aesthetic values and identity search by, 915; African-Caribbean content and, 1128; avant-garde and, 921; cultural nationalism and, 648; differences in Latin American art and, 591; European art influences and, 672, 700; exhibitions from U.S. collections and, 581; individualistic art and, 643–44, 677, 690–92, 700, 781; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 868; Surrealism and, 921, 1128

Lamartine, Alphonse de, 238

Lamennais, Frédéric de, 201

languages: of Latin America, 151–54, 156, 159–60, 181–82, 383, 1098; Spanish language in North America and, 357, 947–48, 983–84, 985–88, 990–91, 994–96

Latin America: overview of, 40–46, 52; destiny of, 55, 261–65, 265n1, 271; ethnocentrism in, 771, 974; historical context and, 145–46, 374, 384–85; immigrations to, 150–51, 184, 207, 233; invention of, 51–52, 95–104, 104n4, 593, 701, 703; languages of, 151–54, 156, 159–60, 181–82, 383; literature of, 58, 222–24, 242, 327–35, 331; meaning of, 98–100; naming of, 51, 86–88, 88n1; origins of, 127–28, 146–47; philosophical identity of, 180, 266–74; potential of, 42, 105, 107–10; South-South perspective and, 931, 1069–70, 1119, 1128; tensions in, 56–57, 275–77, 283–86. See also the Americas; construct of Latin America; continent(s); continental identity (Latin American identity); differences and commonalities in the Americas; Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans; Iberian America; “new world” (New World); North America; North-South axis; pre-Columbian culture and peoples; South America; South-South perspective; Third World; Utopia; the West; specific countries

Latin America, as term of use: Bayón on, 731–32; Brazil and, 324, 326; Calvo on, 166–69; as construct for ideologies and politics, 155, 162, 562, 568–69, 956; Criollos and, 164–65; France and, 56, 105, 166–70, 172, 181, 1117–18; reductive approach and, 129; Rouquié on, 178, 180–82; unity and, 155, 162, 562, 568–69

Latin American art: overview and use of term, 590, 638–44, 842; historical context for, 1090; political art and, 393–94, 429, 591, 691, 697, 701n2, 738, 877n4, 1081; remapping America and, 950, 1047–48, 1053; synthesis of, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 698. See also aesthetics survey; differences in Latin American art; local and universal in art; marginalization; new art; new artist(s); skepticism about Latin American art; status of Latin American art; uniqueness of Latin American art; specific groups

Latin American Artists of the Twentieth Century exhibit, New York, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17

Latin American Collection of the Museum of Modern Art exhibit, 433, 554–57. See also U.S. exhibitions

Latin American Exhibition of Fine Arts, New York, 433, 554–57

Latin American identity (continental identity). See continental identity (Latin American identity)

Latin Americanism, 54, 231–36, 233, 589, 954–55, 1056–66, 1056–67

The Latin American Spirit exhibit, New York, 791, 851–58, 902, 910n2, 1005, 1084n6

Latin Americas, 53, 164, 166, 171–72

“Latin Europe,” 111–13, 150

latinismo (Latinism), 130

Latin-ness: Catholicism and, 168, 170, 181; construct of Latin America and, 53, 164–77, 177n6; Cuba and, 174–75; France and, 167–68, 181; Italy and, 168; melting pot model and, 181–82; Mexico and, 176; Portugal and, 167–68; the primitive and, 938; Spain and, 167–68; unity and, 150; U.S. and, 168, 170

Latino/a, 40–46, 137, 802, 842, 934n16, 956, 983, 997n2. See also Latin America

Latino-American, as term of use, 1003–4, 1017n3

“Latin race, “ as term of use, 52, 111, 113–14, 117, 167

Latin/Saxon opposition, 54, 117, 121–22, 155, 162, 251–52, 330–31. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons

Laviera, Tato, 986, 996

Lefebvre, Henri, 706–9

Léger, Fernand, 536, 871

Le Parc, Julio: individualistic art and, 677–78, 700, 720; on sociocultural and art links, 596–97, 671, 777–78, 783–86

Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 710–11, 729

Lima, Oliveira, 224, 329, 330–31

Lippard, Lucy R., 45, 947–48, 970–80, 980nn2–3, 981n6, 981n8, 1017n4

literature of Latin America, 58, 222–24, 242, 327–35, 331

Livingston, Jane, and topics discussed: aesthetic values of Hispanic art, 791, 806–7, 809–12, 926; curatorial practices and critiques of Hispanic Art in the United States, 793, 808, 833–44, 844n7

local and universal in art: aesthetics survey summary and, 342, 374, 386–89; cultural policy and, 373, 387, 390–96, 396n1; globalization effects on local representation and, 953–54, 1099–1104; internationalism and, 392; local art scene reinvention and, 954, 955–56, 1117–22; post-colonialism and, 55, 1119; universalism and, 342, 374, 386–89. See also regionalism

Lopéz, Félix, 827–28, 838, 927

Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), 543, 799n1, 810, 832

Los Four exhibit, 799n1, 810, 832

Los Tres Grandes, 417. See also Mexican muralism; Orozco, José Clemente; Rivera, Diego; Siqueiros, David Alfaro

Lucchesi, Fernando, 913, 916

Luján, Gilbert, 636, 810, 827, 832

Lusitanian Americans, 157, 169, 171, 327, 329. See also Mestiços

M

Mabe, Manabu, 652, 700

Macció, Rómulo, 396–97, 664, 677, 873

Machu Picchu, 81–85. See also Inca culture and Incas; Peru

Les magiciens de la terre, Paris (Magicians of the Earth), 913, 1073, 1105, 1107–8

Magic Realism, 863, 916, 1064, 1080, 1129. See also fantastic imagery; realism

MALAF (Mexican American Liberation Art Front), 883–84

Malato, Charles, 56, 275–77

Mañach, Jorge, 373, 387, 390–96, 396n1

Manet, Edouard, 415, 659

manifestos, and para-definitions, 1092. See also specific manifestos

Man Ray, 708

Manrique, Jorge Alberto, and topics discussed: individualistic art and modernism, 593, 594, 692–700, 700n1, 701n2; invention of Latin America, 702, 705n1; Latin American as term of use, 701, 703; the other and Latin America, 593, 695, 703; uniqueness of Latin American art, 593, 701–5, 705n1

MARCO, Monterrey, Mexico, 1016–17

Marcuse, Herbert, 706–7

marginalization: Hispanic American artists and, 793–94, 808, 845–50, 853, 855, 1013; of peoples and cultures, 58, 181–82, 327–28; re-center production and, 797, 886–97, 940; representations in exhibitions and, 793–94, 808, 845–50, 853, 855; scholarship issues and, 793–94, 808, 845–50. See also representations in exhibitions

Mariátegui, José Carlos, 255, 286, 737–38, 1089, 1094

Martí, José: continental identity in context of internationalism and, 693–94, 698; de-colonization and, 729, 949–52, 1042–47; national identity and, 693–94, 698, 1042–47, 1051–52, 1053n2, 1071; North-South opposition and, 160; on Nuestra América, 53, 160, 208–15, 510, 949–52, 951–52, 1042–47, 1051–52, 1053n2, 1068–69; on obsolete academicism in Mexico, 340, 346–48, 348n1, 387; religious metaphors and, 1044–45; remapping America and, 950, 1047–48; on U.S. self-confident native art, 429, 514–19

Martinez, César, 807, 828

Martinez, Daniel J., 1050–51, 1055n20

Martín Fierro (periodical), 283, 285, 308, 357, 389, 402, 693

Martín Fierro movement, 693

Martinière, Guy, 53, 164–77, 177n6

marvelous and marvelous realism, 923, 1092–93. See also fantastic imagery; realism

Marxism, 427, 500, 946, 972, 981n6, 1097, 1123. See also political art

Marzio, Peter C., 793–94, 808, 845–50

Matisse, Henri, 407, 417, 536, 867, 871

Matta, Roberto: European art influences and, 672; individualistic art and, 677, 679; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 868; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; sociocultural and art links and, 781; Surrealism and, 915; U.S. exhibitions and, 539–40, 581

Maximilian (Holy Roman Emperor), 87

Maximilian (emperor, Mexico), 111, 463, 467

Mayan culture and Mayans: overview and history of, 409–10, 603–4; Mexico and, 586; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 559; mural movement and, 1036–37; new artists and, 343, 362; Peru and, 586; philosophies in Latin America and, 269; universalism through difference and, 351; U.S. appreciation of indigenous culture and, 533, 534

MCA, San Diego (Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego), 1019–28

melting pot model: overview of, 733, 984, 997n2; Braudel on, 146–47; Brazil and, 325–26; Chicanos and, 612, 635; “cosmic melting pot” of America and, 352; critiques of, 589; Eurocentric frameworks and, 240; homogenization of Hispanic art and, 792; Latin-ness and, 181–82; mestizaje and, 601; Multiculturalism and, 945, 1006, 1017n8; reductive approach and, 171; Sánchez on, 139; syncretism and, 948; U.S. and, 139, 252, 970–71, 974, 989; whites and, 146, 171, 182, 601–2

memory(ies): border culture as practice and, 994; Chicano artists and, 963, 1008–9, 1013; Chicanos and, 601, 610–11, 622–23, 627–28; collective, 963, 1008–9, 1047; cultural nationalism and, 973; fantastic imagery and, 923; folkloric and, 938; globalization effects on local representation and, 1102–4; of indigenous cultures, 534; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1056–57, 1061–66. See also imagination

Méndez, Leopoldo, 519, 522–23

Merewether, Charles, 923, 953–54, 1099–1104

Mérida, Carlos: overview of, 406; avant-garde and, 343; indigenous themes and avant-garde art of, 343, 344, 700; Mexican muralism critique by, 429, 519–21; on vitality in art, 521–23

Mesa-Bains, Amalia, 963, 980, 1049–50

Mesquita, Ivo, 952, 1077–84, 1083n1, 1084n3, 1084nn5–6

Messer, Thomas M., 590–91, 652–56, 663, 668–69, 708

mestiçagem, 326, 333, 335

Mestiços, 324–25, 329, 333, 495–96. See also Indo-American culture; Lusitanian Americans; Mestizos

Mestiços, 159, 325–26. See also Mestizos

mestizaje: overview of, 1070; border culture and, 946–47; Chicano art and, 636; Chicano philosophies and, 625; continental identity and, 388–89, 1093; cultural nationalism and, 629–30, 632; cultural production and, 949; culture in art and, 782; exclusion/absorption model and, 971, 980n3; indigenous peoples and, 602; Latin America’s existence and, 511; melting pot model and, 45, 601, 947–48, 970–80, 980nn2–3, 981n6, 981n8; Mexico and, 602; la raza cósmica compared with, 589; sociocultural structures and, 717; syncretism and, 635; unity and, 150, 980n2; universalism and, 1045

Mestizos: as term of use, 42, 124; overview and history of, 101, 121, 124–25, 487–88, 493n6, 601–2; African populations and, 150; art and, 777–82; art schools and, 401, 1093; Chicano spirit and, 589; colonialism and, 125; continental identity and, 589, 605–6, 695–96; cultural nationalism and, 623; ethnic unity and, 234; fantastic imagery and, 864; Indian populations and, 150; Latin America’s existence and, 146–47, 428–29, 509–13; melting pot model and, 139, 147; philosophies in Latin America and, 624; reductive approach and, 140–41; Spanish populations and, 150; spirit and, 488–89, 589; U.S. history and, 606–7; U.S.-Mexico border and, 1027. See also Chicanos (Mexican Americans); Mestiços; mestiços

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 797, 856, 862, 902–3, 910n2, 934n15, 1100, 1103, 1120

Mexican American Liberation Art Front (MALAF), 883–84

Mexican Americans (Chicanos). See Chicanos (Mexican Americans)

Mexican art and artists: Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1016–17; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1059; Surrealism and, 398, 923–24, 925; U.S. exhibitions and, 802, 804–5

Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum, Chicago (now National Museum of Mexican Art), 897–901

Mexican muralism: overview of, 397–99, 686–87; critiques of, 429, 519–21, 1088; historical context and, 397; Indigenism and, 416, 738, 1093; individualistic art and, 676, 677; new artists and, 343; as political art, 393–94, 429, 591, 691, 697, 701n2, 738, 877n4, 1081; uniqueness of, 366–67, 672. See also murals; Orozco, José Clemente; Rivera, Diego; Siqueiros, David Alfaro

Mexico: activism of new artists and, 365, 670; aesthetic value of art and, 565–66; aesthetic values of new art of, 338–39, 340, 362–63; artists’ economic opportunities and, 566; art societies in, 552; the border between U.S. and, 606–10, 1026–27; Catholicism and, 181, 821; continental identity and, 57, 286–88; Cubism with indigenous themes influences in, 416–17; differences and, 735, 821–22; economics and, 339, 657–58; Estridentismo and, 341, 349; France’s role in, 42, 52, 111–17, 117nn1–3, 167–70, 181, 467; immigrations to, 115, 122; independence of, 220; Indigenism and, 737–38, 1093; indigenous culture and, 393, 398, 416, 641, 699, 923–24, 925; individualistic art and, 399–400, 676, 699; Latin-ness and, 176; Maximilian Affair and, 87, 111, 463, 467; melting pot model and, 181–82; Mestizos culture in art context and, 695; Mexican Revolution and, 287, 339, 621–22, 924; Monroe Doctrine and, 459–67, 467n1; naming of, 165; obsolete academicism in, 340, 346–48, 348n1; open-air academies and, 289–92, 351; philosophies in Latin America and, 623–33, 624–25, 633n3; potential of, 109; pre-Columbian culture in art context and, 569–70, 572, 582, 699; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 235, 1057–58; Santa Ana and, 464–65, 607, 610; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; traveling exhibitions and, 576, 577, 579–80; unity and, 157, 196–97, 235; U. S. immigration policies and, 1020–21, 1024–26; U.S. involvement in, 277, 425; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554. See also Inca culture and Incas; pre-Columbian culture

Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries, New York, 910n2, 934n15, 1100, 1103

MFAH (Museum of Fine Arts, Houston). See Hispanic Art in the United States exhibit, Houston

mimicry (imitation): abstract forms versus, 397, 399, 400, 430, 523–31; Chicanos and, 602, 884; European ideology and, 100, 125, 218, 234–35, 270–71, 712, 787; inferior reproduction and, 199, 296, 681, 1072, 1127–28; production and, 935–41, 1061, 1072; sociocultural structures and, 602, 787, 938; U.S. ideology and, 479, 481–82. See also authenticity

Minimalism, 592, 594, 709, 722, 726

Minujín, Marta, 772, 873–74

MoCHA (Museum of Contemporary Hispanic Art), New York, 826, 842, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20

modernism. See continental identity in context of internationalism

Modernism (modernistas; Modernismo): overview of, 891–92, 944, 1048; Brazil and, 89, 297, 325, 748; critiques of and opposition to, 892; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 920–31, 937; European Modernism and, 843, 860; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; Latin American and, 712, 843, 922, 1093–94; U.S. collections and exhibitions and, 432. See also continental identity in context of internationalism

Modotti, Tina, 428, 497–99

MoMA (Museum of Modern Art). See Museum of Modern Art (MoMA)

Monet, Claude, 415

Monroe, James, 424, 438–41, 445–48

Monroe Doctrine: overview and message of, 44–45, 424, 425–26, 438–41, 445–48; Andrade on continental identity and, 468–71; Bomfim on Latin America and, 452–56, 456nn2–3; Freitas on continental identity and, 468–71; Gili Gaya on Puerto Rico as bridging culture and, 457–58; Mexico and, 459–67, 467n1; Muñoz Marín on Puerto Rico as bridging culture and, 457, 472–78; Pan Americanism and, 506–7; Prado on Brazil’s isolationism and, 58, 330, 440–48, 448n2; Vasconcelos on Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Zumeta on alliance of Latin America and, 425, 449–51. See also the Americas; Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo)

Monteagudo, Bernardo, 238

Montoya, Malaquías, 636, 883

Morães Neto, Prudente de, 58, 307–9

Morais, Frederico de, 769–73, 774n1, 775

Morales, Armando, 652, 679, 719, 751, 915

More, Thomas, 51, 68–72, 72nn1–9, 90–91, 94, 262, 1099

Moreno, Mariano, 238, 610

Morgan family, 56, 277, 910n1

Morley, Grace L. McCann, 433–34, 562–63, 568–74, 591–92

Mosquera, Gerardo, and topics discussed: globalization of art and culture, 44, 954, 955–56, 975, 1123–32; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art, 951–52, 975, 1068–77, 1075n1, 1076nn6–8, 1076n14, 1095; revision of Euro-American curatorial approach, 931; Third World as international catalyst, 975

El Movimiento (The Chicano Movement), 45, 949–50, 1028–42, 1041n3

Multiculturalism: overview of, 45, 944–56; border culture and, 45, 946–48, 958–69, 969n1, 996, 1007, 1017n1, 1019, 1039; critique of, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4; globalization and, 944, 945, 1015–16; as homogenization of differences, 1007–10; internationalism and, 973–74; melting pot model and, 945, 1006, 1017n8; migrations and, 1115n4; pan-Latino identity and, 45, 790, 949; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4; syncretism and, 964. See also Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada; transnational identity; Utopia (no-place)

multi-homeland (multipatira): overview of, 53–54, 200–201; Aguirre on colonial brutality of Spain and, 189–93; American League and, 201, 204–7; Bolívar on unity and, 53–54, 193–200, 234, 459–60, 701; Bomfim on colonial brutality and, 54–55, 215–22, 222n1; Caicedo on, 54, 200–208, 208nn1–2, 950; ex uno plures and, 44, 54, 202; García Calderón on creation of a continent and, 226–30; Vasconcelos on unity and, 54, 231–36; Verissimo on literature of Latin America and, 222–24, 331; Zum Felde’s Eurocentric frameworks and, 55, 236–40, 240n1

Muñoz, Celia Alvarez, 1050, 1055n20

Muñoz Marín, Luis, 457, 472–78

murals and mural movement, 400, 419, 809, 976–77, 1036–38. See also Mexican muralism

Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas. See First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists (Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos)

Museo del Barrio, New York, 1118–19

Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, 434, 581, 805, 899

Museum of Contemporary Art, La Jolla, 1020, 1022

Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego (MCA, San Diego), 1019–28

Museum of Contemporary Hispanic Art (MoCHA), New York, 826, 842, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH). See Hispanic Art in the United States exhibit, Houston

Museum of Modern Art (MoMA): Abstract Expressionism exhibitions and, 868–71, 1088; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; collections and exhibitions of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 867–70; Inter-American Fund and, 560–61; Latin American Artists of the Twentieth Century exhibit and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; Latin American Collection of the Museum of Modern Art exhibit and, 433, 554–57, 558–61; Mexican art exhibitions and, 550, 553n1; Mexico exhibition and, 100, 903, 910n2, 934n15, 1103; new artists’ relationship with, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; politics of art and, 433, 554–57, 558–61, 574, 578–79, 868, 1088, 1118; traveling exhibitions list and, 574, 578–79, 868; Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art exhibition and, 550, 553n1, 559, 797–98, 867–68, 902. See also Conference on Studies in Latin American Art at MoMA (1945); U.S. collections; U.S. exhibitions

Myth and Magic, Monterrey, Mexico, 1016–17

N

Nabuco, Joaquim, 58, 308, 329, 330

Naïfs and Naïves, 357, 416, 676, 829

naïve style: Brazil and, 735; ethnicity representation by, 792, 828–29, 843, 926–27; Haiti and, 735; indigenous culture and, 357, 416; limitations of, 929; primitivism and, 831

Napoleon III (emperor of France): Calvo’s letter to, 42, 52, 105, 106–7; as “liberator,” 228; Mexico’s invasion by, 42, 52, 117n3, 167–70, 181, 467; Spain’s support from, 113. See also France

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), 847–48, 907, 1021

National Gallery of Art, 574–80. See also U.S. collections

national identity: African populations in Brazil and, 305–6; Americanness of and, 343–44, 406, 409–13; of Brazil, 303–6, 306n3; indigenous peoples and, 305–6, 737; Martí on, 693–94, 698, 1042–47; Portuguese in Brazil and, 305–6. See also continental identity (Latin American identity); cultural nationalism; transnational identity

National Museum of Mexican Art, Chicago (formerly Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum), 897–901

Natives and Native Americans, 1093–94. See also indigenous peoples and culture

Nativism, 296n1, 710, 752

nature relationship: art and, 353–54, 360–61, 379–80; culture and, 427, 480; Latin America and, 212, 280, 295, 351, 483

Navarra, Rubén, 698

NEA (National Endowment for the Arts), 847–48, 907, 1021

Negret, Edgar, 679, 781, 869, 872, 1094

Negt, Oskar, 991–92

neo-colonialism, 737, 931. See also colonialism

Neo-Concretism, 853, 1090, 1127. See also Concretism

Neo-Geometricism, 677. See also geometric abstraction; geometric art

Neri, Manuel, 810, 827–28, 832

new art: overview of, 338–44; abstract concept and, 368, 369, 371; avant-garde and, 340–41; Casanovas on activism and, 338, 364–65; Eurindia and, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736; holistic education system and, 241, 243–44; Indo-American culture and, 414; local and continental paradox and, 338, 340, 367–72; Martí on academicism as obsolete and, 340, 346–48, 348n1; Mérida on aesthetic values of Mexican, 338–39, 340, 362–63; New World and, 366; Orozco on limitation of indigenous themes or avant-garde models and, 340, 341, 366–67; Rojas on synthesis of Latin American art and avant-garde and, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736; self-determination and, 339; Siqueiros on universalism through difference and avant-garde and, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; Torres-García on universalism and self-awareness and, 338, 340, 367–72; universalism and, 338, 340, 341, 344, 348–51, 367–72, 529–31, 946–47. See also status of Latin American art

new artist(s): activism and, 338, 364–65; Americanness and, 343–44, 406, 409–13; avant-garde and, 343; Mérida’s Americanness as, 343–44, 406, 409–13; Mexican muralism and, 343; Ontañón on Sabogal’s pre-Columbian culture influences and, 439–41; Pettoruti as, 341, 343, 402–6; Quiroga Galdo on Picasso’s Cubism and indigenous themes and, 344, 414–17; Sabogal on pre-Columbian and colonial history in Mexican paintings by, 343, 417–19; Salmon as, 343, 344, 406–9; Solar on Pettoruti as, 341, 343, 402–6

New Atlantis (Bacon), 51, 73–81

New Figuration (Nueva Figuración; Otra Figuración), 396–97, 677, 873

New Granada. See Colombia; Ecuador; Panama; Venezuela

New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20

New Spain. See Central America; Latin America; Mexico; Panama

“new world” (New World): overview and use of term, 99; the Americas as, 87–88, 100, 126; as border culture, 985; dualism and, 99–100; new art and, 366; Old World dichotomy and, 103, 865. See also the Americas; Utopia (no-place)

Nicaragua, 385, 425, 552

Niedergang, Marcel, 53, 172

Noé, Luis Felipe, 396–401, 593–94, 664–65, 725–31, 1096

no-place (Utopia). See Multiculturalism; “new world” (New World); Utopia (no-place)

nordomanía, 426, 479, 481

Noriega, Chon A., 45, 949–50, 1042–55, 1053nn2–3, 1054n14, 1055n20

North America: activism in, 671–72; americanismo and, 129–30; Anglo-Saxon society and, 126, 127; colonialism and, 56, 121, 224–25; ethics of, 823; geography of, 126, 250–51; immigration to, 427, 1115; Indigenism and, 135; Jesuits and, 258; Latin/Saxon opposition and, 54, 117, 121–22, 155, 162, 251–52, 330–31; melting pot model and, 733; nordomanía and, 426, 479, 481; North Americanism and, 54, 233; Pan American as term and, 56; Reformation and, 115; sociocultural structures and, 54, 224, 233, 252; universalism and, 54; utilitarianism and, 93, 130; Western Christian civilization origins and, 111–12; yankismo and, 129–30. See also the Americas; Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons; continent(s); differences and commonalities in the Americas; Monroe Doctrine; “new world” (New World); North-South axis; South America; United States; the West; specific countries

“not-neither,” 949, 986–87, 994

Nuestra América (Our America): Criollos and, 209–10; indigenous peoples and, 209–10; installation practice in U.S. art museums and, 45, 949–50, 1051–52, 1053n2; Martí on, 53, 160, 208–15, 510, 949–52, 951–52, 1042–47, 1051–52, 1053n2, 1068–69; national identity and, 1042–47; race and, 214, 510; religion as link in construct of, 1004; as term of use for Latin America, 1085

Nueva Figuración (New Figuration), 396–97, 677, 873

Nuyoricans (Puerto Ricans in New York). See Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)

O

Obregón, Alejandro, 643–44, 652, 661, 669–700, 738, 781

O’Gorman, Edmundo, 51–52, 95–104, 104n4, 593, 696, 701, 705n1, 727

O’Higgins, Pablo, 420, 519, 523

Olaguíbel, Manuel de, 698

Ontañón, Mada, 419–21

Op art, 122, 592, 594, 678

Orozco, José Clemente: Expressionism and, 1128; Indigenism and, 416, 641, 1093; individualistic art and, 676, 738; on limitation of indigenous themes or avant-garde models, 340, 341, 366–67, 685; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 431, 559–60, 867–68; political art and, 429, 691, 697, 701n2; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672. See also Mexican muralism

Orrego, Antenor, 57, 286–88, 292–300

Ortega y Gasset, José, 255, 285, 325, 380, 395

Otero, Alejandro, 652, 679, 693, 700, 720, 869, 872

the Other/the other/otherness: overview of, 45, 1094–95, 1125–26; activism and, 1096; cannibalism metaphor and, 1086; Europe and, 930; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; exoticism and, 914, 1074, 1123, 1125–26; fantastic imagery and, 914, 927–30; Latin America and, 593, 695, 703, 1079; Multiculturalism critique and, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4; Postmodernism and, 797, 886–97, 929–30, 952, 966, 1070, 1074–75, 1076n6, 1095, 1114; primitivism and, 926–27, 1102–3; self-exoticism and, 1123, 1125–26; translinguistic deterritorialization and, 1098; universalism and, 893–97; U.S. and, 818–19, 930

Otra Figuración, 396–97, 677, 873

outsider/outcast paradigm, 588, 822, 880, 883, 896–97, 926–27, 972.

P

Pacheco, Máximo, 417, 669

pachucos (zoot suit men), 610–11, 623, 628–30, 632, 1025

Padilla, Ezequiel, 504, 507–8, 508n1

Palma, Ricardo, 295

Panama, 126, 135, 189, 198, 199–200, 553, 907, 988

Panama Canal, 101, 229, 277

Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo): overview and use of term, 56, 1095, 1117–18; Andrade on, 469–70, 471n1; Brazil and, 330–31; ethics and, 495; Freyre’s critique of, 58, 427, 494–97; Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Latin American art and, 500–503, 590–91, 656–62, 660, 663; Monroe Doctrine and, 506–7; North-South axis and, 170; Paz on, 428, 503–8, 508n1, 509nn2–4; U.S. and, 170, 554; U.S. exhibits and, 433, 434, 554–57, 580–83, 859. See also Monroe Doctrine; U.S. Department of State

pan-Latino identity, 45, 790, 949. See also Multiculturalism

Paraguay: economics and, 120, 124; Francia and, 120, 333, 443, 464–65; Jesuits and, 263, 1093; potential of, 109–10; unity and, 157. See also River Plate (Río de la Plata) region

paternalism, 198, 460, 541, 713, 717, 962, 978

Payró, Julio, 640

Paz, Octavio, and topics discussed: Chicano art and sociocultural structures, 729, 791–92, 807, 812–25; Chicano philosophies, 623–26; Pan Americanism, 428, 503–8, 508n1, 509nn2–4

Paz, Pablo Rojas, 56–57, 283–86

Pedro II (emperor of Brazil), 91, 95n1, 441

pelado (“peeled”), 610–11, 613, 614n4

pensador, 43, 587–89, 593, 597n1, 660, 736, 946

Pereyra, Carlos, 465, 467n1

Pérez, Pedro, 827, 838

Peru and Peruvians: activism of new artists and, 365; African populations in, 158, 176; APRA and, 133, 141n1, 181, 737; art societies in, 553; colonial brutality in, 189; creation of a continent and, 227, 229; Cubism and, 417; economics and, 120, 124–25, 658; European art influences and, 642–43, 672; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; Indigenism and, 417, 737–38, 1093–94; indigenous culture and, 293–95, 393; individualistic art and, 399; mestizo art schools in, 401; Mestizos culture in art context and, 695; murals and, 419; Peruvianism and, 293–95; potential of, 109–10; pre-Columbian art context and, 570; traveling exhibitions and, 578; unity and, 234–35; as Utopia’s location, 51, 73–81. See also Inca culture and Incas; pre-Columbian culture and peoples

Pettoruti, Emilio: avant-garde and, 343, 697; Cubism influences and, 343; differences in Latin American art and, 591; individualistic art and, 640, 643–44, 647, 657, 676; new art and, 402–6

photography, 427–28, 497–99, 673

Picasso, Pablo, 344, 349, 413–17, 536, 540n1, 646, 697, 926

Pindorama, 299, 300n4. See also Brazil

Plato, 69, 72n2, 92, 262, 264, 618, 620n3, 895, 912

La Plebe (the riffraff), 600, 601, 609–10, 614n1

Poincaré, Raymond, 52, 118–23

political art, 393–94, 429, 591, 691, 697, 701n2, 738, 877n4, 1081. See also Marxism

Pollock, Jackson, 538, 669, 869–71

Pop art: Chicano art and, 636; consumerism in U.S. and, 708–9, 711; installation practice and, 1048; Latin American uniqueness and, 670, 674, 677; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 873; sociocultural structures and, 594; Third-worldliness and, 1097–98

Porter, Liliana, 772, 873–74, 1089

Portinari, Candido: differences in Latin American art and, 591; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 642; European art influences and, 572; individualistic art and, 643–44; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 431–32, 560, 867; Picasso’s Cubism and indigenous themes influences in, 417; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554

Portugal and Portuguese: balance of power and, 113–14, 168; Brazil’s national identity and, 305–6; colonial brutality of, 217–20; commercial exploitation in the Americas by, 321–22; exclusion/absorption model and, 819–20; Latinism of, 130; latinismo of, 130; Latin-ness and, 167–68; Lusitanian Americans as term of use by, 169; as marginal state, 58, 327–28; Monroe Doctrine and, 439–40; patronage and, 657–58; people of, 125, 127–28; Utopian concept and, 94. See also Europe; Iberia

Posada, José Guadalupe, 523, 564, 674, 676, 735, 874, 1034–35

Positivism, 170, 340, 425, 448n2

post-colonialism: differences and, 1069; globalization of art and, 44; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 1072–74; local art scene and, 55, 1119; Multiculturalism and, 945; South-South perspectives and, 1069, 1073

Postmodernism: overview of, 41, 890–91, 929, 944, 1048; appropriation and, 1068–70, 1072; artistic productions and issues in, 1081–82, 1084n5; border culture and, 947, 987; border culture as practice and, 992; cannibalism metaphor and, 1072, 1076n14; categorization of Latin American art and, 952–53, 959; curatorial practices and, 946, 948; ethnocentrism and, 959, 964; globalization and, 951; installation practice and, 1048–49, 1052; metaphoric cartography for contemporary art and, 1077, 1080–82; Multiculturalism and, 973, 989, 1010; new ethnicity and, 989; the other and, 797, 886–97, 929–30, 952, 966, 1070, 1074–75, 1076n6, 1095, 1114; para-definitions for narratives and, 952–53, 1077, 1085–99; primitivism and, 1082, 1084n7; reevaluation of, 979–80; self-awareness and, 1070–72; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 1111–15, 1112, 1114. See also continental identity in context of internationalism

Post-structuralism, 945–46, 987, 1121–22, 1123

Prado, Eduardo Paulo da Silva, 58, 329–30, 440–48, 448n2

pragmatism, 426–27, 485–86, 493n5, 660, 775, 817, 1085

pre-Columbian culture and peoples: academicism as obsolete in Mexico and, 347; art as reflection of, 433–34, 569–70, 582, 649–50, 664; continental identity and, 57, 286, 289–92; fantastic imagery and, 864; Far-Western cultures and, 181–82, 184; Mexican new artists’ inclusion of colonialism and, 343, 417–19; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 867–68; new artists inclusion of, 343, 417–19; philosophies in Latin America and, 266, 269–70; realism and, 421; reductive approach and, 145, 1080, 1083n1; scholarship and museum building for the Americas and, 430–31, 534–35; traveling exhibitions and, 575; universalism and, 348, 350–51. See also indigenous peoples and culture; specific countries

Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos (First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists), 596–97, 671, 777–86. See also continental identity conferences and debates

the primitive and primitivism: overview of, 758, 1095; Africa and, 762, 1095; Brazil and, 762, 1095; cultural nationalism and, 1095, 1103; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 1039; European, 380, 1093; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; exoticism and, 967; homogenization of Hispanic art and, 792; Latin American, 128, 309–10, 351, 1100; limitations of, 929; naïve style and, 831; the other and, 926–27, 1102–3; Postmodernism and, 1082, 1084n7; reductive approach and, 128–31, 131n1; self-exoticism and, 1126; universalism and, 351; U.S., 757. See also indigenous peoples and culture

Protestantism: the Americas and, 168, 460; Catholicism and, 92, 114–17; Europe and, 263; Iberian sociocultural structures and, 315; North America and, 92, 127, 186–87, 484; U.S. and, 138, 817–18

Prussia, 115, 168, 229, 304, 442–43, 449

Puerto Rican art and artists: cultural nationalism and, 821–22; marginalization and, 1013; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1011–12, 1018n13; production of, 791, 851–58; U.S. exhibitions and, 802, 804–5, 830–31. See also Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans

Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans): overview and use of term, 1018n13; America, as term of use and, 986; border culture as practice and, 995–97; Chicano art and, 827, 948, 951; Civil Rights Movement in U.S. and, 587, 790, 984; discrimination against, 983, 998n4; ethnic minorities and, 586–87; local art scene reinvention and, 1118–19; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1007–8, 1010–12, 1018n13; racial minorities and, 586–87. See also Chicano art and artists; Hispanic art and artists; Puerto Rican art and artists

Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans: as bridging culture, 457–58, 472–78; immigration from, 983; Indology and, 245; language of, 153; as Latin American, 1004–5, 1017n3; Latin-ness of, 180; Spain and, 450, 829, 1011, 1018n14; U.S. and, 277, 449, 1011, 1018n14. See also Puerto Rican art and artists; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)

Puritanism, 127–28, 263, 382, 445, 823

Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 677

Q

Quirarte, Jacinto, 796–97, 854, 879–86

Quiroga Galdo, Germán, 344, 414–17

R

race(s) and the race: differences and, 1007, 1018n10; “Latin race” as term of use, 52, 111, 113–14, 117, 167; Nuestra América and, 214, 510; La Raza and, 600, 601–2, 608–11; universalism and, 54. See also new race(s)

racial issues: border culture as practice and, 989–90, 1000n30; inequalities and, 159, 175, 333, 989, 1000n30; racial mixing and, 54, 233, 339–40, 377, 425–26, 513n3, 946–47, 970–71, 980; U.S. discourse on, 989–90, 1000n30. See also Civil Rights Movement in U.S.

racial minorities: overview and as term of use, 983, 998n3; Multiculturalism and, 1004, 1006, 1017n1, 1017n8; Puerto Ricans in New York and, 586–87. See also race(s) and the race; racial issues

Ramírez, Mari Carmen: on Euro-American curatorial approach for exhibitions, 798–99, 859, 917–33, 933n5, 934nn15–16; Multiculturalism critique by, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4

Ramírez, Martín, 810, 811, 827, 831, 926

Ramos, José Antonio, 374, 382–84, 384n1, 386

Rasmussen, Waldo, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17

rasquachismo (underdog-ism), 949, 976, 1028, 1031–34

Ratzel, Friedrich, 134

Rauschenberg, Robert, 708, 765, 871, 1097

La Raza (the race), 600, 601–2, 608–11

la raza cósmica (the cosmic race), 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3, 685

Reagan, Ronald, and administration, 790, 905–7, 1020–21

realism: fantastic, 914–15; France and, 723; historical, 649; influences on internationalism and, 776; Magic Realism and, 863, 916, 967, 1064, 1080, 1129; marvelous, 923, 1092; pre-Columbian culture influences and, 421; provincial, 564; social, 751, 829; U.S. and, 691; Venezuela and, 120

Reformation, 89–90, 792, 817, 820, 822

regionalism, 296n1, 712, 893, 965, 1109. See also Criollismo; local and universal in art; River Plate (Río de la Plata) region

religion: Calvinism and, 90, 92, 94, 136, 315; Counter-Reformation and, 89–90, 92–94, 792, 820; as link in construct of Latin America, 111–12, 114–17; as link in construct of Nuestra América, 1004; Reformation and, 89–90, 792, 817, 820, 822. See also Christianity; specific religions and sects

remapping America, and Latin American art, 950, 1047–48, 1053

Retamar, Roberto Fernández, 428–29, 509–13

Reverón, Armando, 712, 751, 772, 872, 915

Revista de Antropofagia (periodical), 297, 1076n14 Revista de avance (periodical), 342. See also aesthetics survey

Reyes, Alfonso, 51, 55, 86–88, 88n1, 138–39, 259–65, 265n1, 271

Ribeiro, Darcy, 58, 155–63

Richard, Nelly, and topics discussed: mimicry and production, 935–41, 1061; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4

the riffraff (La Plebe), 600, 601, 609–10, 614n1

Río de la Plata (River Plate) region. See River Plate (Río de la Plata) region

Rivera, Diego: avant-garde and, 343, 697, 1057; Cubism and, 416, 1057; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 381, 641–42; exoticism and, 1074; Indigenism and, 416, 738; individualistic art and, 676; on Mérida’s art, 411; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 431, 559–60, 867–68, 910n2; on Pan Americanism’s impact on Latin American art, 500–503; political art and, 393, 429, 591, 691, 738, 877n4; Rockefellers and, 867, 877n4; traveling exhibitions and, 576; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on unity and art, 427–28, 646. See also Mexican muralism

River Plate (Río de la Plata) region: Brazil’s civilizing role within, 330; Calvo and, 106, 109, 166; creation of a continent and, 228, 229; ethnicity and culture of peoples in, 512–13; geography of Latin America and, 251, 444; independence of, 220; literature of, 355–57, 361n3; Viceroyalty of, 229, 361nn1–2. See also Argentina; Paraguay; Uruguay

Riverside Museum, New York, 433, 554–57

Roa, Raúl, 374, 384–85

Roche Rabelle, Arnaldo, 803, 805, 828

Rockefeller family, 56, 277, 431, 559–60, 668, 795, 867, 869, 877n4

Rockefeller Foundation, 833, 846, 847

Rodó, José Enrique, 135, 331, 426, 479–83, 685, 693–94

Rodríguez Saavedra, Carlos, 777–82

Rojas, Ricardo, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736

Romano, Octavio Ignacio, 589, 621–33, 633n3, 634n13, 884, 1031, 1034

Romano, Ruggiero, 173

Romanticism, 90, 125, 228, 238, 327, 357, 734, 1045–46

Romero, Frank, 810, 832

Romero, Silvio, 58, 215–16, 224, 324–25, 329

Romero Brest, Jorge, 590–91, 674, 680–84, 1087

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 424, 554, 555

Roosevelt, Theodore, 424, 438, 1044, 1085

Rosas, Juan Manuel Ortiz de, 202, 229, 240n1, 330, 333, 361n5, 464–65

Rouquié, Alain, 178–88, 188n3, 188n5, 1124

Rousseau, Henri, 536, 829

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 169, 238, 262, 760

Rowe, Leo Stanton, 556–57

Russia (Soviet Union), 114, 168, 393, 438–39, 487, 566

S

Sabogal, José: European art influences and, 675; Indigenism and, 737–38; on pre-Columbian and colonial history by Mexican new artists, 343, 417–19; pre-Columbian culture influences on, 419–21; on scholarship and museum building for pre-Columbian culture, 430–31, 534–35; on U.S. appreciation of indigenous culture, 430–31, 532–34

Salmon, André, 343, 344, 406–9

Salvador, State of Bahia. See Etsedrón

Sánchez, Luis Alberto, 53, 132–41, 141n5, 142–49, 148n1, 171–72, 180

Sandino, Augusto César, 134, 182

Santa Ana, Antonio López de, 464–65, 607, 610

Santo Domingo, 416–17, 519, 660

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 713

Seguí, Antonio, 664, 665, 667

self-determination, 339, 987, 993, 1020, 1022, 1029, 1036–37

Seneca, 261, 264, 265n1

Seurat, Georges, 415

Shahn, Ben, 538, 691

Shakespeare, William, 262, 429, 479, 513, 1088

Shapiro, Joseph Randall, 434, 580–83, 859

Siegfried, André, 52–53, 126–31, 131n1, 135, 148, 176, 178

Sierra, Paul, 803, 805, 828, 831

Siqueiros, David Alfaro: Indigenism and, 641, 738, 1093; individualistic art and, 676; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 559–60, 867–68; political art and, 429, 691, 738, 1036; pre-Columbian culture in art context and, 572; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on universalism through difference and avant-garde, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; U.S-Mexico relations and, 910n1. See also Mexican muralism

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 591, 652–56, 663, 669

Sontag, Susan, 729–31

Sorell, Victor A., 802–3, 804–6, 806n2

Soto, Jesús Rafael, 666, 677–79, 687n3, 700, 720, 781, 872

South America: overview and naming of continent of, 135, 139, 141; European concept of, 452–54, 457n1; immigration and, 427; indigenous peoples’ disappearance from, 131; marginalization in, 1013; Martinière on use of term, 171; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences in, 1007–10; self-identity and, 280–83

Southern Hemisphere, 1069, 1095. See also the Americas; South America; specific countries

South-South perspective, 931, 1069–70, 1119, 1128

Soviet Union (Russia), 114, 168, 393, 438–39, 487, 566

Spain and Spanish people: balance of power and, 114, 168; Catholicism and, 191, 484; colonial brutality of, 189–93, 217–20; colonialism and, 56, 191, 450, 484, 493n1, 934n16, 971, 980n3; Eurocentric frameworks and, 55, 236–40, 240n1; exclusion/absorption model and, 819–21, 971, 980n3; Hispanic America as term of use and, 56, 169, 181; Latinism of, 130; latinismo of, 130; Latin-ness and, 167–68; melting pot model and, 601; Monroe Doctrine and, 439–41; paternalism and, 460; patronage and, 657–58; people of, 125, 127–28; Puerto Rico as bridging culture between Anglo-Saxons and, 457–58, 472–78; urban planning in the Americas and, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5; Utopian concept and, 94. See also Europe; Iberia; specific rulers

Spanish America and Spanish Americans, 150, 165, 171, 253, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5, 480. See also Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans; specific countries

Spanish language, and North America, 357, 947–48, 983–84, 985–88, 990–91, 994–96. See also languages

spirit and spiritual unification: aesthetic values and, 55–56, 255–59, 255–61, 483, 639; the Americas and, 54, 231–36, 524, 531; Argentina and, 359–60, 494n7; of Catholicism, 488; Chicanos and, 589; criollos and, 488–89; disconnection in Latin America and, 58, 307–9; Hispanic America and, 488–89, 494n7; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 1073; indigenous peoples and, 359, 533; Mestizos and, 488–89, 589; new artists and, 405; of U.S., 487; Utopia and, 55–56, 255–59, 479–80. See also unity

Stettinius, Edward, 503–4, 508, 509n2

Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20

Sturges, Hollister, 795, 859–65, 922–23

Surrealism: overview of, 724, 924, 1084n4, 1096–97; abstract forms versus mimicry and, 527–28, 529; devaluation of, 975; exoticism and, 921; fantastic imagery and, 863, 912, 1080, 1084n3, 1097; Mexican art and, 398, 923–24, 925; Mexican indigenous culture and, 398, 923–24, 925; new art and, 340. See also specific artists

survey on aesthetics. See aesthetics survey

symposium in Austin in 1975: overview of, 740–41; Acha on art as sociocultural phenomenon and, 740, 742–44; Amaral on sociocultural context and differences in Brazil and, 58, 741, 744–49, 953; Bayón on differences and, 738–39; Traba on resistance to commodification of values and, 595–96, 670, 741, 749–53. See also continental identity conferences and debates

Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo, 769–73, 774n1, 774–77. See also continental identity conferences and debates

syncretism: appropriation and, 931; border culture and, 948; Chicano artists and, 589, 635–37, 1032; Christianity and, 184, 326, 792; melting pot model and, 971; mestizaje and, 948; Multiculturalism and, 964

Szyszlo, Fernando de: abstract forms and, 676; abstract forms and indigenous culture and, 719, 738; European art influences and, 700; exclusive view of, 771–72; existence of Latin American art and, 661, 664; individualistic art by, 676; pre-Columbian culture context and, 664, 669; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; sociocultural and art links and, 781; U.S. exhibitions and, 652

T

Taller de Investigación Plástica; Visual Arts’ Research Workshop (T.I.P.), 686–87, 687n2

Tamayo, Franz, 286, 289–91

Tamayo, Rufino: abstract forms and indigenous culture and, 719, 738; cultural nationalism and, 632, 1099; exhibitions from U.S. collections and, 581; indigenous culture and, 641, 719, 738; individualistic art and, 399–400, 677, 690, 700; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 868; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672

Third World: ambiguity in use of term and, 179; border culture and, 946, 959; duality and, 1075n1, 1088; economics of, 183; emergence of, 175; horizontal axis and, 931, 1069; as international catalyst, 975; migrations from, 1115n4; North-South axis and, 1113; sociocultural structure of, 594–95, 714–18; Utopia and, 1061–62; Western region of, 183–86. See also First World; Latin America; North-South axis; South America

Third-Worldliness, 1097–98. See also Third World

13th Sáo Paulo Biennial, 596, 753, 759, 763–67, 769. See also Etsedrón

Thouvenel, Édouard, 105, 107, 167

T.I.P. (Taller de Investigación Plástica; Visual Arts’ Research Workshop), 686–87, 687n2

Tocqueville, Alexis Clerel de, 483, 816

Toledo, Francisco, 700, 738, 771, 915, 924

Torrens, María Luisa, 596, 671, 754, 763–66

Torres Bodet, Jaime, 374–77, 377n1, 386

Torres-García, Joaquín: on abstract forms versus mimicry, 430, 523–31, 685, 1088; aesthetic values and identity search by, 915; art dictatorships and, 1088; avant-garde and, 697, 1057; differences in Latin American art and, 591; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 642, 1093; individualistic art and, 643–44, 648, 676, 691; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on universalism and self-awareness, 338, 340, 367–72

Traba, Marta, and topics discussed: art dictatorships, 1088; consumerism of U.S. art, 595–96, 705–14, 725n2; cultural nationalism and Latin American art, 590, 644–51; differences in Latin American art, 590–91; individualistic art and modernism, 593, 595, 645–49, 688–92; Latin American art as term of use, 590, 638–44; resistance to commodification of values, 595–96, 670, 741, 749–53; sociocultural structures, 594

trans-culturation, 919–20, 923, 924, 933n5, 1109

translinguistic deterritorialization, 1098

transnational identity: Buntinx on local art scene reinvention and, 954, 955–56, 1117–22; Merewether on globalization effects on local representation and, 953–54, 1099–1104; Mosquera on globalization of art and, 44, 954, 955–56, 975, 1123–32; Mosquera on imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 951–52, 975, 1068–77, 1075n1, 1076nn6–8, 1076n14, 1095; Richard on socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4. See also Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada; continental identity (Latin American identity); national identity

Treviño, Rudy, 879–81

Tucumán arde (Tucumán is burning), 686, 687n2

Tupinambá and Tupi-Guarani, 297–99, 300n1, 363, 1088

Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art, New York, 550, 553n1, 559, 797–98, 867–68, 902

Two Cities/Dos Ciudades project, 1022–23

U

United States: Anglo-Saxon society and, 137, 139; art in Latin America context and, 657; “The Big Stick” policy and, 424, 438, 1044, 1085; the border between Mexico and, 606–10, 1026–27; capitalism and, 483–85, 493n4; consumerism and art in, 595–96, 705–14, 725n2, 1097; continental identity and, 288; continental identity of, 432, 541; Culture Wars and, 790, 945, 1019–21; E pluribus unum and, 54, 201–2; ethnicity discourse in, 989, 1000nn30–31; ethnocentrism and, 959, 974; France and, 445–46; Good Neighbor Policy and, 424–25; immigration and, 713, 733, 906, 959, 983–85, 988, 998n6, 1004, 1007; imperialist threat of, 56, 275–77; Latin America involvement by, 277, 446–47, 818, 829, 988, 1000n26; Latinness and, 168, 170; melting pot model and, 970–71, 974; mimicry of ideology and, 479, 481–82; Multiculturalism and, 974; origins of, 127–28; the other and, 818–19, 930; Pan Americanism and, 170, 554; paternalism and, 541; pragmatism and, 426–27, 485–86, 493n5, 775, 817; protector/protectorate relationship with, 452, 455–56; racial discourse in, 989–90, 1000n30; regionalism and, 712; sociocultural structures and, 125, 229; spirit and, 487; utilitarianism and, 93, 130, 209, 221, 282, 479–80; whites as minority and, 606; yankismo and, 129–30. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons; Civil Rights Movement in U.S.; differences and commonalities in the Americas; North America; U.S. collections; U.S. exhibitions; specific presidents

The United States Collects Pan American Art exhibit, Chicago, 434, 580–83, 859

U.S. art and society: overview of, 429; Bayón on art and opportunities in, 431, 535–40, 540n1; Martí on self-confident native art and, 514–19; Mérida on vitality in art and, 521–23; Mexican muralism critiques and, 429, 519–21; Sabogal on appreciation of indigenous culture in, 430–31, 532–34; self-confident native art and, 429; Torres-García on abstract forms versus mimicry in, 430, 523–31. See also United States

U.S. collections: overview of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 867–70; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 535–40, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; Barr on MoMA and, 558–61; exoticism and, 434, 572, 581–82; new artists and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17. See also United States; U.S. art and society; U.S. exhibitions; specific conferences and symposia; and museums

U.S. Department of State, 432, 433, 532, 541–47, 549–50, 554–57, 1088. See also Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo); United States

U.S. exhibitions: overview of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 856, 867–70; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; Argentine artworks and, 550, 553n2; Barr on MoMA exhibit and, 558–61; installation practice in art museums and, 45, 949–50, 1042–55, 1053nn2–3, 1054n14, 1055n20; new artists and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; Shapiro on differences in Latin America art and, 434, 580–83, 859; traveling exhibitions list and, 532, 574–80, 897–901. See also Euro-American curatorial approach; representations in exhibitions; traveling exhibitions; United States; U.S. art and society; U.S. collections; specific conferences and symposia; specific exhibitions; and museums

U.S. Latinos. See Chicanos (Mexican Americans); Cuban Americans; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)

unity and unification: African populations and, 150, 158, 277; alliance of Latin America and, 425, 449–51; Anglo-Saxons and, 150–51, 153, 155, 234; Argentina and, 234–35, 252–53; art of Latin America and, 427–28, 646; Bolivia and, 157; Brazil and, 157; Chile and, 157, 196; Colombia and, 157, 195–97, 235–36; colonialism and, 160–62; construct of Latin America and, 58, 149–63, 178–80, 188n3, 1124; criollos and, 151, 277; Ecuador and, 157, 235; ethnic, 54, 231–36; Far-Western cultures and, 178–80, 188n3; geography of Latin America and, 156; Guatemala and, 157, 235; Hispanic America and, 157; homogenization and, 154; Iberian America and, 151, 157, 252–53; indigenous peoples and, 153, 157–58, 163; Indology and, 56, 245–55; languages of Latin America and, 151–54, 156, 159–60; Latin America as term of use and, 562, 568–69; “Latin Europe” and, 150; Latin-ness and, 150; mestizaje and, 150, 980n2; Mexico and, 157, 196–97, 235; Paraguay and, 157; Peru and, 234–35; political, 53–54, 193–200, 229, 234–35, 459–60, 701, 703; self-awareness for promotion of, 56, 277–83; social inequalities and, 152–53; sociocultural structures and, 152–54, 156, 159–60; superficial, 58–59, 224, 301–6, 306n3; Utopia and, 56, 245–55; Venezuela and, 157. See also spirit and spiritual unification

universalism: overview of, 388; aesthetics survey and, 342, 374, 379–80, 386–89; avant-garde and, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; through differences and, 341, 343, 344, 348–51, 381, 404–6, 946–47; indigenous cultures and, 351, 381; local and universal in art and, 342, 374, 386–89; mestizaje and, 1045; new art and, 338, 340, 341, 344, 348–51, 367–72, 529–31, 946–47; North America and, 54; the other and, 893–97; pre-Columbian cultures and, 348, 350–51; primitivism and, 351; race and, 54; Romanticism and, 1045–46; self-awareness and, 338, 340, 367–72, 396.

Uribe, Juan Camilo, 772, 915

Uruguay: activism and, 670; art and artists in, 830–31, 1088; art societies in, 553; economics and, 124; European art influences and, 582, 695; Hispanic American spirit and, 494n7; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; Indigenism and, 1093–94; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1059. See also River Plate (Río de la Plata) region

utilitarianism, 93, 130, 209, 221, 282, 479–80

Utopia (no-place): overview of, 50–59, 1099; Andrade, Mario de on, 89–95, 95nn1–2; Bacon on Peru as location of, 51, 73–81; Bingham’s “discovery” of Machu Picchu and, 81–85; Bomfim on holistic education system and, 55, 241–45; Columbus’s “discoveries” and, 50–51, 62–67, 99; Frank on spiritual unification and aesthetics and, 55–56, 255–59; García Calderón on, 228, 230; Indology and, 56, 245–55; More on sociocultural structures of, 51, 68–72, 72nn1–9, 90–91, 94, 262, 1099; O’Gorman on invention of Latin America and, 51–52, 95–104, 104n4; Peru as location of, 51, 73–81; Reyes on destiny of Latin America and, 55, 261–65, 265n1, 271; Reyes on Frank’s vision of, 259–61; Reyes on naming of Latin America and, 51, 86–88, 88n1; Vasconcelos on unity and, 56, 245–55; Zea on philosophical identity and, 180, 266–74. See also the Americas

V

Valdez, Luis, 588, 600–614, 614nn1–6, 615, 948

Valéry, Paul, 183–84, 692

Vallauri, Alex, 913, 915

Vanderbilt family, 56, 277, 537

Van Gogh, Vincent, 415, 536

Vasconcelos, José: biographical information about, 623; Chicano philosophies and, 624–25; on Hispanic Americanism and Pan Americanism, 459–67, 467n1; on la raza cósmica, 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3, 685; on unity, 54, 231–36, 589; on unity and Indology, 56, 245–55, 427

Vega, Jorge de la, 396–97, 664, 873, 915

Velasco, José María, 564, 657, 699

Venezuela: aesthetic value of art and, 566; African populations in, 158; art societies in, 553; avant-garde and, 677; economics and, 120; European art influences and, 582; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; patronage and, 566; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1058; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; unity and, 157, 195–96, 197, 235; U.S. exhibitions of artists from, 802, 804–5; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554

Vergara, Carlos, 670

Veríssimo, José, 222–31, 331

Vespucci, Amerigo, 72n5, 87, 88, 89, 99, 166, 606, 1085

Villa, Esteban, 632, 636, 879, 880, 883–86, 1030

Villa, Pancho, 609–10, 622, 627–28

Voltaire, 88, 136, 231, 283, 328

el vulgo, 601, 614n1

W

Wallace, Henry A., 554, 556

Weber, Max, 319, 528–29, 538

Weitz, Robert L., 802–4

the West: ethnocentrism and, 629, 656, 799, 931, 962, 965; Latin America and, 178–88, 188n3, 188n5, 864–65, 1047, 1079, 1125; origins of, 111–12. See also the Americas; Europe

Weston, Edward, 428, 497–99

whites: melting pot model and, 146, 171, 182, 601–2; as minority in U.S., 606, 971–72; philosophies in Latin America and, 625; racial hierarchy and, 159, 175, 333; “whitening” and, 122, 425–26. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons

Whitman, Walt, 367–68, 371, 524, 531, 824

Whitney Museum of American Art, 431, 535, 537–38, 869

Wight Art Gallery, Los Angeles, 808, 903

Williams, Raymond, 729, 980

Wilson, Woodrow, 233, 609

Winnipeg Art Gallery, Manitoba, Canada. See Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada

WPA (Works Progress [Projects] Administration), 429–30, 543–44

X

xenophobia, 629, 717, 737, 771

Xul Solar, 341, 343, 402–6, 915

Y

yankismo, 129–30

Ybarra-Frausto, Tomás, and topics discussed: El Movimiento, 45, 949–50, 1028–42, 1041n3; rasquachismo, 949, 1028, 1031–34

Yudice, George, 45, 947, 948, 982–97, 997nn1–2, 998nn3–4, 998nn6–8, 1000n26, 1000nn30–31

Yurkievich, Saúl, 594–95, 702, 719–25, 725n2

Z

Zapata, Emiliano, 609, 625–27, 772, 890, 924

Zea, Leopoldo, 180, 266–74

Zermano, Ando, 1034

zoot suit men (pachucos), 610–11, 623, 628–30, 632, 1025

Zumeta, César, 425, 449–51

Zum Felde, Albert, 55, 236–40, 240n1

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