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Description: Resisting Categories: Latin American and/or Latino?
Copyright CreditsI.1.7 Edmundo O’Gorman, “The invention of America, an inquiry into the Historical nature of the New World and the Meaning of its History” © 1961. Bloomington: Indiana University press, 1961. Reprinted with the permission of Indiana University Press.
I.2.5 Courtesy of the family of Mário de Andrade
I.2.6 Courtesy of the Instituto Luis Alberto Sánchez Authorization provided by the Fondo de Cultura Económica, for the 1945 Edition: Luis Alberto Sánchez, ¿Existe América Latina?
I.2.7 Courtesy of Mme. Paule Braudel
I.2.8 Courtesy of Jean Casimir
I.2.10 Guy Martinière, “L’invention d’un concept opératoire: la latinité de l’Amérique,” in Guy Martinière, Aspects de la coopération franco-brésilienne : transplantation culturelle et stratégie de la modernité. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1982.
I.2.11 Alain Rouquié, América Latina—Introducción al Extremo Occidente. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI Editores, 2004 © siglo xxi editor
Author
PublisherThe Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00102.039
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Copyright Credits
I.1.5 D.R. © Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2011
I.1.7 Edmundo O’Gorman, “The invention of America, an inquiry into the Historical nature of the New World and the Meaning of its History” © 1961. Bloomington: Indiana University press, 1961. Reprinted with the permission of Indiana University Press.
I.2.5 Courtesy of the family of Mário de Andrade
I.2.6 Courtesy of the Instituto Luis Alberto Sánchez Authorization provided by the Fondo de Cultura Económica, for the 1945 Edition: Luis Alberto Sánchez, ¿Existe América Latina?
I.2.7 Courtesy of Mme. Paule Braudel
I.2.8 Courtesy of Jean Casimir
I.2.10 Guy Martinière, “L’invention d’un concept opératoire: la latinité de l’Amérique,” in Guy Martinière, Aspects de la coopération franco-brésilienne : transplantation culturelle et stratégie de la modernité. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1982.
I.2.11 Alain Rouquié, América Latina—Introducción al Extremo Occidente. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI Editores, 2004 © siglo xxi editores, s.a. de c.v.
1.3.8 José Vasconcelos, “Carta a la juventud de Colombia; Dirigida a Germán Arciniegas,” 1923 © 2011 by Editorial Trillas S.A. de C.V. All rights reserved. Used with permission of the publisher.
I.4.2 Courtesy of the personal archives of Joaquín Vasconcelos García
I.4.4 D.R. © Alicia Reyes, 2011
I.4.5 D.R. © Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2011
I.4.6 Courtesy of María Elena Rodríguez Ozan. Rights of the author as established under Mexican law. From Latin American Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, ed. Jorge J.E. Gracia (Amherst NY: Prometheus Books, 1986), 217–230. © 1986 by Jorge J.E. Gracia. Used with permission of the publisher. www.prometheusbooks.com
I.6.2 D.R. © Alicia Reyes, 2011
I.6.3 D.R. © Alicia Reyes, 2011
I.6.4 Courtesy of the family of Buarque de Hollanda
I.6.5 Courtesy of the family of Buarque de Hollanda
I.6.6 Courtesy of the family of Eduardo de Faria Coutinho
I.6.7 Courtesy of Antonio Candido
II.1.2 © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City
II.1.4 Courtesy of Alma Mérida
II.1.6 José Clemente Orozco © 2011 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / SOMAAP, Mexico City
II.2.1 Jaime T. Bodet, “Indagación: ¿Que debe ser el arte americano?” 6 de septiembre de 1928, Revista de Avance (La Habana), año 2, vol. 3.
II.2.9 Courtesy of the personal archives of Luis Felipe Noé, Buenos Aires, Argentina
II.3.1 Fundacion Pan Klub-Museo Xul Solar
II.3.2 Fundacion Pan Klub-Museo Xul Solar
II.3.3 Courtesy of the Private Archives of Ms. Gojard
II.3.4 Courtesy of the Fondo Patrimonial en Beneficio de El Colegio de México, A.C.
II.3.5 Courtesy of Diario de São Paulo
II.3.7 Courtesy of his children Maura and Saide Sesin Martínez, Julio Duran and his grandchildren Rodrigo, Omar, Pablo, Leonardo y Antonio
III.1.5 Courtesy of Samuel Gili Maluquer, Madrid, España
III.1.6 José Vasconcelos “Hispanoamericanismo y panamericanismo”, Temas Iberoamericanos, Chile: Ediciones Ercilla, 1937 © 2011 by Editorial Trillas S.A. de C.V. All rights reserved. Used with permission of the publisher.
III.1.7 Courtesy of the family of Mário de Andrade
III.1.8 Courtesy of the Archivo Histórico de la Fundación Luis Muñoz Marín, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2011
III.2.3 Courtesy of Fundação Gilberto Freyre
III.2.4 D.R. © 2011 Banco de México, “Fiduciario” en el Fideicomiso relativo a los Museos Diego Rivera y Frida Kahlo. Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc 06059, México, D.F.
III.2.5 D.R. © 2011 Banco de México, “Fiduciario” en el Fideicomiso relativo a los Museos Diego Rivera y Frida Kahlo. Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. Centro, Del. Cuauhtémoc 06059, México, D.F.
III.2.6 © 1945 by Marie José Paz. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corp.
III.2.7 Roberto Fernandez Retamar, “Caliban: Notes Toward a Discussion of Culture in Our America,” from Caliban and Other Essays (University of Minnesota Press, 1989). Used by permission. Copyright © 1989 by the University of Minnesota
III.3.2 Courtesy of Alma Mérida
III.3.5 Courtesy of Centro Damián Bayón del Instituto de América de Santa Fe, Granada, España
III.4.1 U.S. State Department, Washington, D.C.
III.4.2 U.S. State Department, Washington, D.C.
III.4.6 Alfred H. Barr, Jr., foreword to The Latin-American Collection of the Museum of Modern Art, by Lincoln Kirstein (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1943) © 1943 The Museum of Modern Art, New York
III.4.7 Alfred H. Barr, Jr., “Problems of Research and Documentation in Contemporary Latin American Art,” in Proceedings of a Conference held in the Museum of Modern Art, New York, May 28–31, 1945, (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies, 1949).
III.4.8 Morley, Grace L. McCann, “Contemporary Regional Schools In Latin America,” in: Elizabeth Wilder, ed. Studies in Latin American Art, in Proceedings of a Conference held in the Museum of Modern Art, New York, May 28–31, 1945, (Washington, D.C. American Council of Learned Societies, 1949).
III.4.9 Courtesy of the Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington
III.4.10 Courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago
IV.1.1 Courtesy of the Private Archives of Luis Valdez and El Teatro Campesino, San Juan Bautista, California, USA
IV.1.2 José Vasconcelos. “Afterword” by Joseba Gabilondo. The Cosmic Race/ La raza cosmic, pp. 34-40 © 1997 English Translation, Introduction, and Notes by Didier T. Jaen © 1997 Afterword, The Johns Hopkins University Press. Reprinted with permission of the Johns Hopkins University Press.
IV.1.4 Courtesy of the Estate of Shifra Goldman
IV.2.1 Courtesy of Fernando Zalamea Traba
IV.2.2 Courtesy of Fernando Zalamea Traba
IV.2.3 Thomas M. Messer, “Introduction.” Originally published in The Emergent Decade: Latin American Painters and Paintings in the 1960s © 1966 The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York. All rights reserved. Used by permission.
IV.2.4 Courtesy of Blanton Museum of Art, The University of Texas at Austin Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery
IV.2.5 Courtesy of the Private Archives of Jacqueline Barnitz, Austin, Texas, USA, and Plástica, Liga de Arte de San Juan, Puerto Rico
IV.2.6 Courtesy of the Private Archives of Jacqueline Barnitz, Austin, Texas, USA, and Plástica, Liga de Arte de San Juan, Puerto Rico
IV.2.7 Courtesy of Centro Damián Bayón del Instituto de América de Santa Fe, Granada, España
IV.2.8 Courtesy of the Private Archives of Benjamin O. Cosentino
IV.2.9 Courtesy of Rita Eder
IV.3.1 Courtesy of Fernando Zalamea Traba
IV.3.2 Courtesy de Jorge Alberto Manrique Jorge Alberto Manrique, “¿Identidad o modernidad?” en Damián Bayón (ed.), América Latina en sus artes. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI Editores, 1974 © Siglo XXI Editores, S.A. de C.V.
IV.3.3 Courtesy of Jorge Alberto Manrique and Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas
IV.3.4 Courtesy of Fernando Zalamea Traba
IV.3.5 Personal archives of Mtra. Mahia Biblos, Mexico City
IV.3.6 Courtesy of the personal archives of Gladis Yurkievich and sons, Paris, France Saúl Yurkievich, “El arte de una sociedad en transformación,” en Damián Bayón (ed.) América Latina en sus artes, México, D.F: Siglo XXI Editores, 1974 © siglo xxi editores, s.a. de c.v.
IV.3.7 Courtesy of the personal archives of Luis Felipe Noé, Buenos Aires, Argentina
IV.3.8 Courtesy of Centro Damián Bayón del Instituto de América de Santa Fe, Granada, España
IV.4.1 Personal archives of Mtra. Mahia Biblos, Mexico City
IV.4.2 Courtesy of personal archives of Aracy A. Amaral
IV.4.3 Courtesy of Fernando Zalamea Traba
IV.4.4 Courtesy of personal archives of Aracy A. Amaral
IV.4.5 Personal archives of Mtra. Mahia Biblos, Mexico City
IV.4.6 Courtesy of the personal archives of María Luisa Torrens
IV.4.7 Courtesy of Manuel Felguérez Barra
IV.4.8 Courtesy of Frederico Morais
IV.4.9 Courtesy of personal archives of Aracy A. Amaral
IV.4.10 Courtesy of Carlos Rodríguez Saavedra
IV.4.11 Courtesy of the personal archives of Julio Le Parc, Cachan, France
V.1.1 Courtesy of Robert L. Weitz
V.1.2 Courtesy of the private archives of Victor Alejandro Sorell, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
V.1.3 Courtesy of Jane Livingston. Jane Livingston and John Beardsley, “Preface and Acknowledgements,” in : Beardsley, John. United States: Country–Region: Thirty Contemporary Painters and Sculptors. New York: Abbeville Press, 1987.
V.1.4 © 1987 by Marie José Paz. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corp. Octavio Paz, “Art and Identity: Hispanics in the United States.” Translated by Eliot Winberger, in John Beardsley, United States: Country–Region: Thirty Contemporary Painters and Sculptors. New York: Abbeville Press, 1987
V.1.5 Courtesy of the Estate of Shifra Goldman
V.1.6 Courtesy of Jane Livingston Copied with the permission of the Smithsonian Books. Copyright 1987
V.1.7 Copied with the permission of the Smithsonian Books. Copyright 1987
V.1.8 Courtesy of Luis Cancel
V.1.9 Courtesy of the Indianapolis Museum of Art
V.1.10 Waldo Rasmussen, “Introduction to an Exhibition,” in Latin American Artists of the Twentieth Century, ed. Waldo Rasmussen with Fatima Bercht and Elizabeth Ferrer (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1993) © 1993 The Museum of Modern Art, New York
V.2.1 Courtesy of Jacinto Quirarte. From MEXICAN AMERICAN ARTISTS by Jacinto Quirarte, Copyright © 1973. Courtesy of the University of Texas Press
V.2.2 Rupert Garcia and the Alternative Museum of New York. Courtesy of La Pocha Nostra Archives
V.2.3 Courtesy of Fundación Ehrenberg-Xicochimalco
V.2.4 Courtesy of the Estate of Shifra Goldman
V.2.5 Courtesy of personal archives of Aracy A. Amaral
V.2.6 Courtesy of Mari Carmen Ramírez
V.2.7 Courtesy of Nelly Richard
VI.1.1 Courtesy of La Pocha Nostra Archives
VI.1.2 Courtesy of Lucy R. Lippard
VI.1.3 Juan Flores, George Yudice, “Living Borders/Buscando America: Languages of Latino Self-Formation,” in Social Text 24, Volume 8, no. 2, 57–84. Copyright, 1990, Duke University Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted by the permission of the publisher. www.dukeupress.edu
VI.1.4 Courtesy of Mari Carmen Ramírez “Beyond ‘The Fantastic’: Framing Identity in U.S. Exhibitions of Latin American Art” was first published by the College Art Association in the Winter 1992 issue of Art Journal.
VI.1.5 Courtesy of Patricio Chávez
VI.1.6 Courtesy of Tomás Ybarra-Frausto, New York, NY, USA
VI.1.7 Chon Noriega, “Barricades of Ideas: Latino Culture, Site-Specific Installations, and the U.S. Art Museum,” from May Joseph and Jennifer Natalya Fink (eds.) Performing Hybridity (University of Minnesota Press, 1998). Used by permission. Copyright 1999 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota
VI.2.1 Courtesy of Gerardo Mosquera. Courtesy of Banco de la República de Colombia
VI.2.2 Courtesy of the Winnipeg Art Gallery
VI.2.3 Courtesy of the Winnipeg Art Gallery
VI.2.4 Courtesy of Charles Merewether Courtesy of Americans for the Arts
VI.2.5 Courtesy of Nelly Richard
VI.2.6 Courtesy of Gustavo Buntinx
VI.2.7 Courtesy of Gerardo Mosquera. Courtesy of Art Nexus/ Arte en Colombia
VI.1.8 Nestor Garcia Canclini, “Aesthetic Moments of Latin Americanism” in Radical History Review, Volume 89, no. 13–24. Copyright, 2004, MARHO : The Radical Historians Organization, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted by the permission of the publisher, Duke University Press. www.dukeupress.edu
The International Center for the Arts of the Americas at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, has made every effort to contact all copyright holders for documents and images reproduced in this book. If proper acknowledgment had not been made, we ask copyright holders to contact the ICAA. We regret any omissions.
Critical Documents of 20th-Century Latin American and Latino Art
SERIES EDITORS
Mari Carmen Ramírez
Héctor Olea
SERIES COORDINATOR
María C. Gaztambide
VOLUME EDITORS
Héctor Olea
Melina Kervandjian
PUBLICATIONS DIRECTOR
Diane Lovejoy
VOLUME TITLES
Volume I: Resisting Categories: Latin American and/or Latino? (2012)
Volume II: National Imaginaries/Cosmopolitan Identities (2013)
Underwritten by THE NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES

Published with the assistance of THE GETTY FOUNDATION
IN MEMORY OF OUR COLLEAGUE
OLIVIER DEBROISE
(1954–2008)
who believed in and supported wholeheartedly the
ICAA Documents Project from its inception.
His intellectual contributions to the early stages
of this book were invaluable.
Marxism, 427, 500, 946, 972, 981n6, 1097, 1123. See also political art
Marzio, Peter C., 793–94, 808, 845–50
Matisse, Henri, 407, 417, 536, 867, 871
Matta, Roberto: European art influences and, 672; individualistic art and, 677, 679; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 868; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; sociocultural and art links and, 781; Surrealism and, 915; U.S. exhibitions and, 539–40, 581
Maximilian (Holy Roman Emperor), 87
Maximilian (emperor, Mexico), 111, 463, 467
Mayan culture and Mayans: overview and history of, 409–10, 603–4; Mexico and, 586; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 559; mural movement and, 1036–37; new artists and, 343, 362; Peru and, 586; philosophies in Latin America and, 269; universalism through difference and, 351; U.S. appreciation of indigenous culture and, 533, 534
MCA, San Diego (Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego), 1019–28
melting pot model: overview of, 733, 984, 997n2; Braudel on, 146–47; Brazil and, 325–26; Chicanos and, 612, 635; “cosmic melting pot” of America and, 352; critiques of, 589; Eurocentric frameworks and, 240; homogenization of Hispanic art and, 792; Latin-ness and, 181–82; mestizaje and, 601; Multiculturalism and, 945, 1006, 1017n8; reductive approach and, 171; Sánchez on, 139; syncretism and, 948; U.S. and, 139, 252, 970–71, 974, 989; whites and, 146, 171, 182, 601–2
memory(ies): border culture as practice and, 994; Chicano artists and, 963, 1008–9, 1013; Chicanos and, 601, 610–11, 622–23, 627–28; collective, 963, 1008–9, 1047; cultural nationalism and, 973; fantastic imagery and, 923; folkloric and, 938; globalization effects on local representation and, 1102–4; of indigenous cultures, 534; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1056–57, 1061–66. See also imagination
Méndez, Leopoldo, 519, 522–23
Merewether, Charles, 923, 953–54, 1099–1104
Mérida, Carlos: overview of, 406; avant-garde and, 343; indigenous themes and avant-garde art of, 343, 344, 700; Mexican muralism critique by, 429, 519–21; on vitality in art, 521–23
Mesa-Bains, Amalia, 963, 980, 1049–50
Mesquita, Ivo, 952, 1077–84, 1083n1, 1084n3, 1084nn5–6
Messer, Thomas M., 590–91, 652–56, 663, 668–69, 708
mestiçagem, 326, 333, 335
Mestiços, 324–25, 329, 333, 495–96. See also Indo-American culture; Lusitanian Americans; Mestizos
Mestiços, 159, 325–26. See also Mestizos
mestizaje: overview of, 1070; border culture and, 946–47; Chicano art and, 636; Chicano philosophies and, 625; continental identity and, 388–89, 1093; cultural nationalism and, 629–30, 632; cultural production and, 949; culture in art and, 782; exclusion/absorption model and, 971, 980n3; indigenous peoples and, 602; Latin America’s existence and, 511; melting pot model and, 45, 601, 947–48, 970–80, 980nn2–3, 981n6, 981n8; Mexico and, 602; la raza cósmica compared with, 589; sociocultural structures and, 717; syncretism and, 635; unity and, 150, 980n2; universalism and, 1045
Mestizos: as term of use, 42, 124; overview and history of, 101, 121, 124–25, 487–88, 493n6, 601–2; African populations and, 150; art and, 777–82; art schools and, 401, 1093; Chicano spirit and, 589; colonialism and, 125; continental identity and, 589, 605–6, 695–96; cultural nationalism and, 623; ethnic unity and, 234; fantastic imagery and, 864; Indian populations and, 150; Latin America’s existence and, 146–47, 428–29, 509–13; melting pot model and, 139, 147; philosophies in Latin America and, 624; reductive approach and, 140–41; Spanish populations and, 150; spirit and, 488–89, 589; U.S. history and, 606–7; U.S.-Mexico border and, 1027. See also Chicanos (Mexican Americans); Mestiços; mestiços
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 797, 856, 862, 902–3, 910n2, 934n15, 1100, 1103, 1120
Mexican American Liberation Art Front (MALAF), 883–84
Mexican Americans (Chicanos). See Chicanos (Mexican Americans)
Mexican art and artists: Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1016–17; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1059; Surrealism and, 398, 923–24, 925; U.S. exhibitions and, 802, 804–5
Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum, Chicago (now National Museum of Mexican Art), 897–901
Mexican muralism: overview of, 397–99, 686–87; critiques of, 429, 519–21, 1088; historical context and, 397; Indigenism and, 416, 738, 1093; individualistic art and, 676, 677; new artists and, 343; as political art, 393–94, 429, 591, 691, 697, 701n2, 738, 877n4, 1081; uniqueness of, 366–67, 672. See also murals; Orozco, José Clemente; Rivera, Diego; Siqueiros, David Alfaro
Mexico: activism of new artists and, 365, 670; aesthetic value of art and, 565–66; aesthetic values of new art of, 338–39, 340, 362–63; artists’ economic opportunities and, 566; art societies in, 552; the border between U.S. and, 606–10, 1026–27; Catholicism and, 181, 821; continental identity and, 57, 286–88; Cubism with indigenous themes influences in, 416–17; differences and, 735, 821–22; economics and, 339, 657–58; Estridentismo and, 341, 349; France’s role in, 42, 52, 111–17, 117nn1–3, 167–70, 181, 467; immigrations to, 115, 122; independence of, 220; Indigenism and, 737–38, 1093; indigenous culture and, 393, 398, 416, 641, 699, 923–24, 925; individualistic art and, 399–400, 676, 699; Latin-ness and, 176; Maximilian Affair and, 87, 111, 463, 467; melting pot model and, 181–82; Mestizos culture in art context and, 695; Mexican Revolution and, 287, 339, 621–22, 924; Monroe Doctrine and, 459–67, 467n1; naming of, 165; obsolete academicism in, 340, 346–48, 348n1; open-air academies and, 289–92, 351; philosophies in Latin America and, 623–33, 624–25, 633n3; potential of, 109; pre-Columbian culture in art context and, 569–70, 572, 582, 699; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 235, 1057–58; Santa Ana and, 464–65, 607, 610; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; traveling exhibitions and, 576, 577, 579–80; unity and, 157, 196–97, 235; U. S. immigration policies and, 1020–21, 1024–26; U.S. involvement in, 277, 425; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554. See also Inca culture and Incas; pre-Columbian culture
Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries, New York, 910n2, 934n15, 1100, 1103
MFAH (Museum of Fine Arts, Houston). See Hispanic Art in the United States exhibit, Houston
mimicry (imitation): abstract forms versus, 397, 399, 400, 430, 523–31; Chicanos and, 602, 884; European ideology and, 100, 125, 218, 234–35, 270–71, 712, 787; inferior reproduction and, 199, 296, 681, 1072, 1127–28; production and, 935–41, 1061, 1072; sociocultural structures and, 602, 787, 938; U.S. ideology and, 479, 481–82. See also authenticity
Minimalism, 592, 594, 709, 722, 726
Minujín, Marta, 772, 873–74
MoCHA (Museum of Contemporary Hispanic Art), New York, 826, 842, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20
modernism. See continental identity in context of internationalism
Modernism (modernistas; Modernismo): overview of, 891–92, 944, 1048; Brazil and, 89, 297, 325, 748; critiques of and opposition to, 892; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 920–31, 937; European Modernism and, 843, 860; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; Latin American and, 712, 843, 922, 1093–94; U.S. collections and exhibitions and, 432. See also continental identity in context of internationalism
Modotti, Tina, 428, 497–99
MoMA (Museum of Modern Art). See Museum of Modern Art (MoMA)
Monet, Claude, 415
Monroe, James, 424, 438–41, 445–48
Monroe Doctrine: overview and message of, 44–45, 424, 425–26, 438–41, 445–48; Andrade on continental identity and, 468–71; Bomfim on Latin America and, 452–56, 456nn2–3; Freitas on continental identity and, 468–71; Gili Gaya on Puerto Rico as bridging culture and, 457–58; Mexico and, 459–67, 467n1; Muñoz Marín on Puerto Rico as bridging culture and, 457, 472–78; Pan Americanism and, 506–7; Prado on Brazil’s isolationism and, 58, 330, 440–48, 448n2; Vasconcelos on Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Zumeta on alliance of Latin America and, 425, 449–51. See also the Americas; Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo)
Monteagudo, Bernardo, 238
Montoya, Malaquías, 636, 883
Morães Neto, Prudente de, 58, 307–9
Morais, Frederico de, 769–73, 774n1, 775
Morales, Armando, 652, 679, 719, 751, 915
More, Thomas, 51, 68–72, 72nn1–9, 90–91, 94, 262, 1099
Moreno, Mariano, 238, 610
Morgan family, 56, 277, 910n1
Morley, Grace L. McCann, 433–34, 562–63, 568–74, 591–92
Mosquera, Gerardo, and topics discussed: globalization of art and culture, 44, 954, 955–56, 975, 1123–32; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art, 951–52, 975, 1068–77, 1075n1, 1076nn6–8, 1076n14, 1095; revision of Euro-American curatorial approach, 931; Third World as international catalyst, 975
El Movimiento (The Chicano Movement), 45, 949–50, 1028–42, 1041n3
Multiculturalism: overview of, 45, 944–56; border culture and, 45, 946–48, 958–69, 969n1, 996, 1007, 1017n1, 1019, 1039; critique of, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4; globalization and, 944, 945, 1015–16; as homogenization of differences, 1007–10; internationalism and, 973–74; melting pot model and, 945, 1006, 1017n8; migrations and, 1115n4; pan-Latino identity and, 45, 790, 949; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4; syncretism and, 964. See also Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada; transnational identity; Utopia (no-place)
multi-homeland (multipatira): overview of, 53–54, 200–201; Aguirre on colonial brutality of Spain and, 189–93; American League and, 201, 204–7; Bolívar on unity and, 53–54, 193–200, 234, 459–60, 701; Bomfim on colonial brutality and, 54–55, 215–22, 222n1; Caicedo on, 54, 200–208, 208nn1–2, 950; ex uno plures and, 44, 54, 202; García Calderón on creation of a continent and, 226–30; Vasconcelos on unity and, 54, 231–36; Verissimo on literature of Latin America and, 222–24, 331; Zum Felde’s Eurocentric frameworks and, 55, 236–40, 240n1
Muñoz, Celia Alvarez, 1050, 1055n20
Muñoz Marín, Luis, 457, 472–78
murals and mural movement, 400, 419, 809, 976–77, 1036–38. See also Mexican muralism
Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas. See First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists (Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos)
Museo del Barrio, New York, 1118–19
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, 434, 581, 805, 899
Museum of Contemporary Art, La Jolla, 1020, 1022
Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego (MCA, San Diego), 1019–28
Museum of Contemporary Hispanic Art (MoCHA), New York, 826, 842, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH). See Hispanic Art in the United States exhibit, Houston
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA): Abstract Expressionism exhibitions and, 868–71, 1088; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; collections and exhibitions of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 867–70; Inter-American Fund and, 560–61; Latin American Artists of the Twentieth Century exhibit and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; Latin American Collection of the Museum of Modern Art exhibit and, 433, 554–57, 558–61; Mexican art exhibitions and, 550, 553n1; Mexico exhibition and, 100, 903, 910n2, 934n15, 1103; new artists’ relationship with, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; politics of art and, 433, 554–57, 558–61, 574, 578–79, 868, 1088, 1118; traveling exhibitions list and, 574, 578–79, 868; Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art exhibition and, 550, 553n1, 559, 797–98, 867–68, 902. See also Conference on Studies in Latin American Art at MoMA (1945); U.S. collections; U.S. exhibitions
Myth and Magic, Monterrey, Mexico, 1016–17
N
Nabuco, Joaquim, 58, 308, 329, 330
Naïfs and Naïves, 357, 416, 676, 829
naïve style: Brazil and, 735; ethnicity representation by, 792, 828–29, 843, 926–27; Haiti and, 735; indigenous culture and, 357, 416; limitations of, 929; primitivism and, 831
Napoleon III (emperor of France): Calvo’s letter to, 42, 52, 105, 106–7; as “liberator,” 228; Mexico’s invasion by, 42, 52, 117n3, 167–70, 181, 467; Spain’s support from, 113. See also France
National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), 847–48, 907, 1021
National Gallery of Art, 574–80. See also U.S. collections
national identity: African populations in Brazil and, 305–6; Americanness of and, 343–44, 406, 409–13; of Brazil, 303–6, 306n3; indigenous peoples and, 305–6, 737; Martí on, 693–94, 698, 1042–47; Portuguese in Brazil and, 305–6. See also continental identity (Latin American identity); cultural nationalism; transnational identity
National Museum of Mexican Art, Chicago (formerly Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum), 897–901
Natives and Native Americans, 1093–94. See also indigenous peoples and culture
Nativism, 296n1, 710, 752
nature relationship: art and, 353–54, 360–61, 379–80; culture and, 427, 480; Latin America and, 212, 280, 295, 351, 483
Navarra, Rubén, 698
NEA (National Endowment for the Arts), 847–48, 907, 1021
Negret, Edgar, 679, 781, 869, 872, 1094
Negt, Oskar, 991–92
neo-colonialism, 737, 931. See also colonialism
Neo-Concretism, 853, 1090, 1127. See also Concretism
Neo-Geometricism, 677. See also geometric abstraction; geometric art
Neri, Manuel, 810, 827–28, 832
new art: overview of, 338–44; abstract concept and, 368, 369, 371; avant-garde and, 340–41; Casanovas on activism and, 338, 364–65; Eurindia and, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736; holistic education system and, 241, 243–44; Indo-American culture and, 414; local and continental paradox and, 338, 340, 367–72; Martí on academicism as obsolete and, 340, 346–48, 348n1; Mérida on aesthetic values of Mexican, 338–39, 340, 362–63; New World and, 366; Orozco on limitation of indigenous themes or avant-garde models and, 340, 341, 366–67; Rojas on synthesis of Latin American art and avant-garde and, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736; self-determination and, 339; Siqueiros on universalism through difference and avant-garde and, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; Torres-García on universalism and self-awareness and, 338, 340, 367–72; universalism and, 338, 340, 341, 344, 348–51, 367–72, 529–31, 946–47. See also status of Latin American art
new artist(s): activism and, 338, 364–65; Americanness and, 343–44, 406, 409–13; avant-garde and, 343; Mérida’s Americanness as, 343–44, 406, 409–13; Mexican muralism and, 343; Ontañón on Sabogal’s pre-Columbian culture influences and, 439–41; Pettoruti as, 341, 343, 402–6; Quiroga Galdo on Picasso’s Cubism and indigenous themes and, 344, 414–17; Sabogal on pre-Columbian and colonial history in Mexican paintings by, 343, 417–19; Salmon as, 343, 344, 406–9; Solar on Pettoruti as, 341, 343, 402–6
New Atlantis (Bacon), 51, 73–81
New Figuration (Nueva Figuración; Otra Figuración), 396–97, 677, 873
New Granada. See Colombia; Ecuador; Panama; Venezuela
New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20
New Spain. See Central America; Latin America; Mexico; Panama
“new world” (New World): overview and use of term, 99; the Americas as, 87–88, 100, 126; as border culture, 985; dualism and, 99–100; new art and, 366; Old World dichotomy and, 103, 865. See also the Americas; Utopia (no-place)
Nicaragua, 385, 425, 552
Niedergang, Marcel, 53, 172
Noé, Luis Felipe, 396–401, 593–94, 664–65, 725–31, 1096
no-place (Utopia). See Multiculturalism; “new world” (New World); Utopia (no-place)
nordomanía, 426, 479, 481
Noriega, Chon A., 45, 949–50, 1042–55, 1053nn2–3, 1054n14, 1055n20
North America: activism in, 671–72; americanismo and, 129–30; Anglo-Saxon society and, 126, 127; colonialism and, 56, 121, 224–25; ethics of, 823; geography of, 126, 250–51; immigration to, 427, 1115; Indigenism and, 135; Jesuits and, 258; Latin/Saxon opposition and, 54, 117, 121–22, 155, 162, 251–52, 330–31; melting pot model and, 733; nordomanía and, 426, 479, 481; North Americanism and, 54, 233; Pan American as term and, 56; Reformation and, 115; sociocultural structures and, 54, 224, 233, 252; universalism and, 54; utilitarianism and, 93, 130; Western Christian civilization origins and, 111–12; yankismo and, 129–30. See also the Americas; Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons; continent(s); differences and commonalities in the Americas; Monroe Doctrine; “new world” (New World); North-South axis; South America; United States; the West; specific countries
“not-neither,” 949, 986–87, 994
Nuestra América (Our America): Criollos and, 209–10; indigenous peoples and, 209–10; installation practice in U.S. art museums and, 45, 949–50, 1051–52, 1053n2; Martí on, 53, 160, 208–15, 510, 949–52, 951–52, 1042–47, 1051–52, 1053n2, 1068–69; national identity and, 1042–47; race and, 214, 510; religion as link in construct of, 1004; as term of use for Latin America, 1085
Nueva Figuración (New Figuration), 396–97, 677, 873
Nuyoricans (Puerto Ricans in New York). See Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)
O
Obregón, Alejandro, 643–44, 652, 661, 669–700, 738, 781
O’Gorman, Edmundo, 51–52, 95–104, 104n4, 593, 696, 701, 705n1, 727
O’Higgins, Pablo, 420, 519, 523
Olaguíbel, Manuel de, 698
Ontañón, Mada, 419–21
Op art, 122, 592, 594, 678
Orozco, José Clemente: Expressionism and, 1128; Indigenism and, 416, 641, 1093; individualistic art and, 676, 738; on limitation of indigenous themes or avant-garde models, 340, 341, 366–67, 685; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 431, 559–60, 867–68; political art and, 429, 691, 697, 701n2; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672. See also Mexican muralism
Orrego, Antenor, 57, 286–88, 292–300
Ortega y Gasset, José, 255, 285, 325, 380, 395
Otero, Alejandro, 652, 679, 693, 700, 720, 869, 872
the Other/the other/otherness: overview of, 45, 1094–95, 1125–26; activism and, 1096; cannibalism metaphor and, 1086; Europe and, 930; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; exoticism and, 914, 1074, 1123, 1125–26; fantastic imagery and, 914, 927–30; Latin America and, 593, 695, 703, 1079; Multiculturalism critique and, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4; Postmodernism and, 797, 886–97, 929–30, 952, 966, 1070, 1074–75, 1076n6, 1095, 1114; primitivism and, 926–27, 1102–3; self-exoticism and, 1123, 1125–26; translinguistic deterritorialization and, 1098; universalism and, 893–97; U.S. and, 818–19, 930
Otra Figuración, 396–97, 677, 873
outsider/outcast paradigm, 588, 822, 880, 883, 896–97, 926–27, 972.
P
Pacheco, Máximo, 417, 669
pachucos (zoot suit men), 610–11, 623, 628–30, 632, 1025
Padilla, Ezequiel, 504, 507–8, 508n1
Palma, Ricardo, 295
Panama, 126, 135, 189, 198, 199–200, 553, 907, 988
Panama Canal, 101, 229, 277
Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo): overview and use of term, 56, 1095, 1117–18; Andrade on, 469–70, 471n1; Brazil and, 330–31; ethics and, 495; Freyre’s critique of, 58, 427, 494–97; Hispanic Americanism and, 459–67, 467n1; Latin American art and, 500–503, 590–91, 656–62, 660, 663; Monroe Doctrine and, 506–7; North-South axis and, 170; Paz on, 428, 503–8, 508n1, 509nn2–4; U.S. and, 170, 554; U.S. exhibits and, 433, 434, 554–57, 580–83, 859. See also Monroe Doctrine; U.S. Department of State
pan-Latino identity, 45, 790, 949. See also Multiculturalism
Paraguay: economics and, 120, 124; Francia and, 120, 333, 443, 464–65; Jesuits and, 263, 1093; potential of, 109–10; unity and, 157. See also River Plate (Río de la Plata) region
paternalism, 198, 460, 541, 713, 717, 962, 978
Payró, Julio, 640
Paz, Octavio, and topics discussed: Chicano art and sociocultural structures, 729, 791–92, 807, 812–25; Chicano philosophies, 623–26; Pan Americanism, 428, 503–8, 508n1, 509nn2–4
Paz, Pablo Rojas, 56–57, 283–86
Pedro II (emperor of Brazil), 91, 95n1, 441
pelado (“peeled”), 610–11, 613, 614n4
pensador, 43, 587–89, 593, 597n1, 660, 736, 946
Pereyra, Carlos, 465, 467n1
Pérez, Pedro, 827, 838
Peru and Peruvians: activism of new artists and, 365; African populations in, 158, 176; APRA and, 133, 141n1, 181, 737; art societies in, 553; colonial brutality in, 189; creation of a continent and, 227, 229; Cubism and, 417; economics and, 120, 124–25, 658; European art influences and, 642–43, 672; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; Indigenism and, 417, 737–38, 1093–94; indigenous culture and, 293–95, 393; individualistic art and, 399; mestizo art schools in, 401; Mestizos culture in art context and, 695; murals and, 419; Peruvianism and, 293–95; potential of, 109–10; pre-Columbian art context and, 570; traveling exhibitions and, 578; unity and, 234–35; as Utopia’s location, 51, 73–81. See also Inca culture and Incas; pre-Columbian culture and peoples
Pettoruti, Emilio: avant-garde and, 343, 697; Cubism influences and, 343; differences in Latin American art and, 591; individualistic art and, 640, 643–44, 647, 657, 676; new art and, 402–6
photography, 427–28, 497–99, 673
Picasso, Pablo, 344, 349, 413–17, 536, 540n1, 646, 697, 926
Pindorama, 299, 300n4. See also Brazil
Plato, 69, 72n2, 92, 262, 264, 618, 620n3, 895, 912
La Plebe (the riffraff), 600, 601, 609–10, 614n1
Poincaré, Raymond, 52, 118–23
political art, 393–94, 429, 591, 691, 697, 701n2, 738, 877n4, 1081. See also Marxism
Pollock, Jackson, 538, 669, 869–71
Pop art: Chicano art and, 636; consumerism in U.S. and, 708–9, 711; installation practice and, 1048; Latin American uniqueness and, 670, 674, 677; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 873; sociocultural structures and, 594; Third-worldliness and, 1097–98
Porter, Liliana, 772, 873–74, 1089
Portinari, Candido: differences in Latin American art and, 591; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 642; European art influences and, 572; individualistic art and, 643–44; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 431–32, 560, 867; Picasso’s Cubism and indigenous themes influences in, 417; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554
Portugal and Portuguese: balance of power and, 113–14, 168; Brazil’s national identity and, 305–6; colonial brutality of, 217–20; commercial exploitation in the Americas by, 321–22; exclusion/absorption model and, 819–20; Latinism of, 130; latinismo of, 130; Latin-ness and, 167–68; Lusitanian Americans as term of use by, 169; as marginal state, 58, 327–28; Monroe Doctrine and, 439–40; patronage and, 657–58; people of, 125, 127–28; Utopian concept and, 94. See also Europe; Iberia
Posada, José Guadalupe, 523, 564, 674, 676, 735, 874, 1034–35
Positivism, 170, 340, 425, 448n2
post-colonialism: differences and, 1069; globalization of art and, 44; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 1072–74; local art scene and, 55, 1119; Multiculturalism and, 945; South-South perspectives and, 1069, 1073
Postmodernism: overview of, 41, 890–91, 929, 944, 1048; appropriation and, 1068–70, 1072; artistic productions and issues in, 1081–82, 1084n5; border culture and, 947, 987; border culture as practice and, 992; cannibalism metaphor and, 1072, 1076n14; categorization of Latin American art and, 952–53, 959; curatorial practices and, 946, 948; ethnocentrism and, 959, 964; globalization and, 951; installation practice and, 1048–49, 1052; metaphoric cartography for contemporary art and, 1077, 1080–82; Multiculturalism and, 973, 989, 1010; new ethnicity and, 989; the other and, 797, 886–97, 929–30, 952, 966, 1070, 1074–75, 1076n6, 1095, 1114; para-definitions for narratives and, 952–53, 1077, 1085–99; primitivism and, 1082, 1084n7; reevaluation of, 979–80; self-awareness and, 1070–72; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 1111–15, 1112, 1114. See also continental identity in context of internationalism
Post-structuralism, 945–46, 987, 1121–22, 1123
Prado, Eduardo Paulo da Silva, 58, 329–30, 440–48, 448n2
pragmatism, 426–27, 485–86, 493n5, 660, 775, 817, 1085
pre-Columbian culture and peoples: academicism as obsolete in Mexico and, 347; art as reflection of, 433–34, 569–70, 582, 649–50, 664; continental identity and, 57, 286, 289–92; fantastic imagery and, 864; Far-Western cultures and, 181–82, 184; Mexican new artists’ inclusion of colonialism and, 343, 417–19; MoMA collections/exhibitions and, 867–68; new artists inclusion of, 343, 417–19; philosophies in Latin America and, 266, 269–70; realism and, 421; reductive approach and, 145, 1080, 1083n1; scholarship and museum building for the Americas and, 430–31, 534–35; traveling exhibitions and, 575; universalism and, 348, 350–51. See also indigenous peoples and culture; specific countries
Primer encuentro iberoamericano de críticos de arte y artistas plásticos (First Ibero-American Encounter of Art Critics and Visual Artists), 596–97, 671, 777–86. See also continental identity conferences and debates
the primitive and primitivism: overview of, 758, 1095; Africa and, 762, 1095; Brazil and, 762, 1095; cultural nationalism and, 1095, 1103; Euro-American curatorial approach and, 1039; European, 380, 1093; exclusion/absorption model and, 921; exoticism and, 967; homogenization of Hispanic art and, 792; Latin American, 128, 309–10, 351, 1100; limitations of, 929; naïve style and, 831; the other and, 926–27, 1102–3; Postmodernism and, 1082, 1084n7; reductive approach and, 128–31, 131n1; self-exoticism and, 1126; universalism and, 351; U.S., 757. See also indigenous peoples and culture
Protestantism: the Americas and, 168, 460; Catholicism and, 92, 114–17; Europe and, 263; Iberian sociocultural structures and, 315; North America and, 92, 127, 186–87, 484; U.S. and, 138, 817–18
Prussia, 115, 168, 229, 304, 442–43, 449
Puerto Rican art and artists: cultural nationalism and, 821–22; marginalization and, 1013; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1011–12, 1018n13; production of, 791, 851–58; U.S. exhibitions and, 802, 804–5, 830–31. See also Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans
Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans): overview and use of term, 1018n13; America, as term of use and, 986; border culture as practice and, 995–97; Chicano art and, 827, 948, 951; Civil Rights Movement in U.S. and, 587, 790, 984; discrimination against, 983, 998n4; ethnic minorities and, 586–87; local art scene reinvention and, 1118–19; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences and, 1007–8, 1010–12, 1018n13; racial minorities and, 586–87. See also Chicano art and artists; Hispanic art and artists; Puerto Rican art and artists
Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans: as bridging culture, 457–58, 472–78; immigration from, 983; Indology and, 245; language of, 153; as Latin American, 1004–5, 1017n3; Latin-ness of, 180; Spain and, 450, 829, 1011, 1018n14; U.S. and, 277, 449, 1011, 1018n14. See also Puerto Rican art and artists; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)
Puritanism, 127–28, 263, 382, 445, 823
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 677
Q
Quirarte, Jacinto, 796–97, 854, 879–86
Quiroga Galdo, Germán, 344, 414–17
R
race(s) and the race: differences and, 1007, 1018n10; “Latin race” as term of use, 52, 111, 113–14, 117, 167; Nuestra América and, 214, 510; La Raza and, 600, 601–2, 608–11; universalism and, 54. See also new race(s)
racial issues: border culture as practice and, 989–90, 1000n30; inequalities and, 159, 175, 333, 989, 1000n30; racial mixing and, 54, 233, 339–40, 377, 425–26, 513n3, 946–47, 970–71, 980; U.S. discourse on, 989–90, 1000n30. See also Civil Rights Movement in U.S.
racial minorities: overview and as term of use, 983, 998n3; Multiculturalism and, 1004, 1006, 1017n1, 1017n8; Puerto Ricans in New York and, 586–87. See also race(s) and the race; racial issues
Ramírez, Mari Carmen: on Euro-American curatorial approach for exhibitions, 798–99, 859, 917–33, 933n5, 934nn15–16; Multiculturalism critique by, 949–51, 1002–19, 1017n1, 1017nn3–4, 1017n8, 1018n10, 1018nn13–14, 1018nn16–17, 1019n18, 1019n20, 1094, 1115n4
Ramírez, Martín, 810, 811, 827, 831, 926
Ramos, José Antonio, 374, 382–84, 384n1, 386
Rasmussen, Waldo, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17
rasquachismo (underdog-ism), 949, 976, 1028, 1031–34
Ratzel, Friedrich, 134
Rauschenberg, Robert, 708, 765, 871, 1097
La Raza (the race), 600, 601–2, 608–11
la raza cósmica (the cosmic race), 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3, 685
Reagan, Ronald, and administration, 790, 905–7, 1020–21
realism: fantastic, 914–15; France and, 723; historical, 649; influences on internationalism and, 776; Magic Realism and, 863, 916, 967, 1064, 1080, 1129; marvelous, 923, 1092; pre-Columbian culture influences and, 421; provincial, 564; social, 751, 829; U.S. and, 691; Venezuela and, 120
Reformation, 89–90, 792, 817, 820, 822
regionalism, 296n1, 712, 893, 965, 1109. See also Criollismo; local and universal in art; River Plate (Río de la Plata) region
religion: Calvinism and, 90, 92, 94, 136, 315; Counter-Reformation and, 89–90, 92–94, 792, 820; as link in construct of Latin America, 111–12, 114–17; as link in construct of Nuestra América, 1004; Reformation and, 89–90, 792, 817, 820, 822. See also Christianity; specific religions and sects
remapping America, and Latin American art, 950, 1047–48, 1053
Retamar, Roberto Fernández, 428–29, 509–13
Reverón, Armando, 712, 751, 772, 872, 915
Revista de Antropofagia (periodical), 297, 1076n14 Revista de avance (periodical), 342. See also aesthetics survey
Reyes, Alfonso, 51, 55, 86–88, 88n1, 138–39, 259–65, 265n1, 271
Ribeiro, Darcy, 58, 155–63
Richard, Nelly, and topics discussed: mimicry and production, 935–41, 1061; socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4
the riffraff (La Plebe), 600, 601, 609–10, 614n1
Río de la Plata (River Plate) region. See River Plate (Río de la Plata) region
Rivera, Diego: avant-garde and, 343, 697, 1057; Cubism and, 416, 1057; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 381, 641–42; exoticism and, 1074; Indigenism and, 416, 738; individualistic art and, 676; on Mérida’s art, 411; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 431, 559–60, 867–68, 910n2; on Pan Americanism’s impact on Latin American art, 500–503; political art and, 393, 429, 591, 691, 738, 877n4; Rockefellers and, 867, 877n4; traveling exhibitions and, 576; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on unity and art, 427–28, 646. See also Mexican muralism
River Plate (Río de la Plata) region: Brazil’s civilizing role within, 330; Calvo and, 106, 109, 166; creation of a continent and, 228, 229; ethnicity and culture of peoples in, 512–13; geography of Latin America and, 251, 444; independence of, 220; literature of, 355–57, 361n3; Viceroyalty of, 229, 361nn1–2. See also Argentina; Paraguay; Uruguay
Riverside Museum, New York, 433, 554–57
Roa, Raúl, 374, 384–85
Roche Rabelle, Arnaldo, 803, 805, 828
Rockefeller family, 56, 277, 431, 559–60, 668, 795, 867, 869, 877n4
Rockefeller Foundation, 833, 846, 847
Rodó, José Enrique, 135, 331, 426, 479–83, 685, 693–94
Rodríguez Saavedra, Carlos, 777–82
Rojas, Ricardo, 133, 341, 352–61, 361nn1–7, 660, 736
Romano, Octavio Ignacio, 589, 621–33, 633n3, 634n13, 884, 1031, 1034
Romano, Ruggiero, 173
Romanticism, 90, 125, 228, 238, 327, 357, 734, 1045–46
Romero, Frank, 810, 832
Romero, Silvio, 58, 215–16, 224, 324–25, 329
Romero Brest, Jorge, 590–91, 674, 680–84, 1087
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 424, 554, 555
Roosevelt, Theodore, 424, 438, 1044, 1085
Rosas, Juan Manuel Ortiz de, 202, 229, 240n1, 330, 333, 361n5, 464–65
Rouquié, Alain, 178–88, 188n3, 188n5, 1124
Rousseau, Henri, 536, 829
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 169, 238, 262, 760
Rowe, Leo Stanton, 556–57
Russia (Soviet Union), 114, 168, 393, 438–39, 487, 566
S
Sabogal, José: European art influences and, 675; Indigenism and, 737–38; on pre-Columbian and colonial history by Mexican new artists, 343, 417–19; pre-Columbian culture influences on, 419–21; on scholarship and museum building for pre-Columbian culture, 430–31, 534–35; on U.S. appreciation of indigenous culture, 430–31, 532–34
Salmon, André, 343, 344, 406–9
Salvador, State of Bahia. See Etsedrón
Sánchez, Luis Alberto, 53, 132–41, 141n5, 142–49, 148n1, 171–72, 180
Sandino, Augusto César, 134, 182
Santa Ana, Antonio López de, 464–65, 607, 610
Santo Domingo, 416–17, 519, 660
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 713
Seguí, Antonio, 664, 665, 667
self-determination, 339, 987, 993, 1020, 1022, 1029, 1036–37
Seneca, 261, 264, 265n1
Seurat, Georges, 415
Shahn, Ben, 538, 691
Shakespeare, William, 262, 429, 479, 513, 1088
Shapiro, Joseph Randall, 434, 580–83, 859
Siegfried, André, 52–53, 126–31, 131n1, 135, 148, 176, 178
Sierra, Paul, 803, 805, 828, 831
Siqueiros, David Alfaro: Indigenism and, 641, 738, 1093; individualistic art and, 676; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 429, 559–60, 867–68; political art and, 429, 691, 738, 1036; pre-Columbian culture in art context and, 572; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on universalism through difference and avant-garde, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; U.S-Mexico relations and, 910n1. See also Mexican muralism
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 591, 652–56, 663, 669
Sontag, Susan, 729–31
Sorell, Victor A., 802–3, 804–6, 806n2
Soto, Jesús Rafael, 666, 677–79, 687n3, 700, 720, 781, 872
South America: overview and naming of continent of, 135, 139, 141; European concept of, 452–54, 457n1; immigration and, 427; indigenous peoples’ disappearance from, 131; marginalization in, 1013; Martinière on use of term, 171; Multiculturalism as homogenization of differences in, 1007–10; self-identity and, 280–83
Southern Hemisphere, 1069, 1095. See also the Americas; South America; specific countries
South-South perspective, 931, 1069–70, 1119, 1128
Soviet Union (Russia), 114, 168, 393, 438–39, 487, 566
Spain and Spanish people: balance of power and, 114, 168; Catholicism and, 191, 484; colonial brutality of, 189–93, 217–20; colonialism and, 56, 191, 450, 484, 493n1, 934n16, 971, 980n3; Eurocentric frameworks and, 55, 236–40, 240n1; exclusion/absorption model and, 819–21, 971, 980n3; Hispanic America as term of use and, 56, 169, 181; Latinism of, 130; latinismo of, 130; Latin-ness and, 167–68; melting pot model and, 601; Monroe Doctrine and, 439–41; paternalism and, 460; patronage and, 657–58; people of, 125, 127–28; Puerto Rico as bridging culture between Anglo-Saxons and, 457–58, 472–78; urban planning in the Americas and, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5; Utopian concept and, 94. See also Europe; Iberia; specific rulers
Spanish America and Spanish Americans, 150, 165, 171, 253, 318–23, 323n3, 323n5, 480. See also Hispanic America and Hispanic Americans; specific countries
Spanish language, and North America, 357, 947–48, 983–84, 985–88, 990–91, 994–96. See also languages
spirit and spiritual unification: aesthetic values and, 55–56, 255–59, 255–61, 483, 639; the Americas and, 54, 231–36, 524, 531; Argentina and, 359–60, 494n7; of Catholicism, 488; Chicanos and, 589; criollos and, 488–89; disconnection in Latin America and, 58, 307–9; Hispanic America and, 488–89, 494n7; imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 1073; indigenous peoples and, 359, 533; Mestizos and, 488–89, 589; new artists and, 405; of U.S., 487; Utopia and, 55–56, 255–59, 479–80. See also unity
Stettinius, Edward, 503–4, 508, 509n2
Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, 932, 958, 1005, 1012, 1014–15, 1018n16, 1055n20
Sturges, Hollister, 795, 859–65, 922–23
Surrealism: overview of, 724, 924, 1084n4, 1096–97; abstract forms versus mimicry and, 527–28, 529; devaluation of, 975; exoticism and, 921; fantastic imagery and, 863, 912, 1080, 1084n3, 1097; Mexican art and, 398, 923–24, 925; Mexican indigenous culture and, 398, 923–24, 925; new art and, 340. See also specific artists
survey on aesthetics. See aesthetics survey
symposium in Austin in 1975: overview of, 740–41; Acha on art as sociocultural phenomenon and, 740, 742–44; Amaral on sociocultural context and differences in Brazil and, 58, 741, 744–49, 953; Bayón on differences and, 738–39; Traba on resistance to commodification of values and, 595–96, 670, 741, 749–53. See also continental identity conferences and debates
Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo, 769–73, 774n1, 774–77. See also continental identity conferences and debates
syncretism: appropriation and, 931; border culture and, 948; Chicano artists and, 589, 635–37, 1032; Christianity and, 184, 326, 792; melting pot model and, 971; mestizaje and, 948; Multiculturalism and, 964
Szyszlo, Fernando de: abstract forms and, 676; abstract forms and indigenous culture and, 719, 738; European art influences and, 700; exclusive view of, 771–72; existence of Latin American art and, 661, 664; individualistic art by, 676; pre-Columbian culture context and, 664, 669; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; sociocultural and art links and, 781; U.S. exhibitions and, 652
T
Taller de Investigación Plástica; Visual Arts’ Research Workshop (T.I.P.), 686–87, 687n2
Tamayo, Franz, 286, 289–91
Tamayo, Rufino: abstract forms and indigenous culture and, 719, 738; cultural nationalism and, 632, 1099; exhibitions from U.S. collections and, 581; indigenous culture and, 641, 719, 738; individualistic art and, 399–400, 677, 690, 700; MoMA collections and exhibitions and, 868; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672
Third World: ambiguity in use of term and, 179; border culture and, 946, 959; duality and, 1075n1, 1088; economics of, 183; emergence of, 175; horizontal axis and, 931, 1069; as international catalyst, 975; migrations from, 1115n4; North-South axis and, 1113; sociocultural structure of, 594–95, 714–18; Utopia and, 1061–62; Western region of, 183–86. See also First World; Latin America; North-South axis; South America
Third-Worldliness, 1097–98. See also Third World
13th Sáo Paulo Biennial, 596, 753, 759, 763–67, 769. See also Etsedrón
Thouvenel, Édouard, 105, 107, 167
T.I.P. (Taller de Investigación Plástica; Visual Arts’ Research Workshop), 686–87, 687n2
Tocqueville, Alexis Clerel de, 483, 816
Toledo, Francisco, 700, 738, 771, 915, 924
Torrens, María Luisa, 596, 671, 754, 763–66
Torres Bodet, Jaime, 374–77, 377n1, 386
Torres-García, Joaquín: on abstract forms versus mimicry, 430, 523–31, 685, 1088; aesthetic values and identity search by, 915; art dictatorships and, 1088; avant-garde and, 697, 1057; differences in Latin American art and, 591; ethnicity in Latin American art and, 642, 1093; individualistic art and, 643–44, 648, 676, 691; resistance to commodification of values and, 751; uniqueness of Latin American art and, 672; on universalism and self-awareness, 338, 340, 367–72
Traba, Marta, and topics discussed: art dictatorships, 1088; consumerism of U.S. art, 595–96, 705–14, 725n2; cultural nationalism and Latin American art, 590, 644–51; differences in Latin American art, 590–91; individualistic art and modernism, 593, 595, 645–49, 688–92; Latin American art as term of use, 590, 638–44; resistance to commodification of values, 595–96, 670, 741, 749–53; sociocultural structures, 594
trans-culturation, 919–20, 923, 924, 933n5, 1109
translinguistic deterritorialization, 1098
transnational identity: Buntinx on local art scene reinvention and, 954, 955–56, 1117–22; Merewether on globalization effects on local representation and, 953–54, 1099–1104; Mosquera on globalization of art and, 44, 954, 955–56, 975, 1123–32; Mosquera on imaginary region for reframing contemporary art and, 951–52, 975, 1068–77, 1075n1, 1076nn6–8, 1076n14, 1095; Richard on socio-political context for contemporary exhibitions and, 913, 953, 1075, 1076n6, 1087, 1105–16, 1115n4. See also Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada; continental identity (Latin American identity); national identity
Treviño, Rudy, 879–81
Tucumán arde (Tucumán is burning), 686, 687n2
Tupinambá and Tupi-Guarani, 297–99, 300n1, 363, 1088
Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art, New York, 550, 553n1, 559, 797–98, 867–68, 902
Two Cities/Dos Ciudades project, 1022–23
U
United States: Anglo-Saxon society and, 137, 139; art in Latin America context and, 657; “The Big Stick” policy and, 424, 438, 1044, 1085; the border between Mexico and, 606–10, 1026–27; capitalism and, 483–85, 493n4; consumerism and art in, 595–96, 705–14, 725n2, 1097; continental identity and, 288; continental identity of, 432, 541; Culture Wars and, 790, 945, 1019–21; E pluribus unum and, 54, 201–2; ethnicity discourse in, 989, 1000nn30–31; ethnocentrism and, 959, 974; France and, 445–46; Good Neighbor Policy and, 424–25; immigration and, 713, 733, 906, 959, 983–85, 988, 998n6, 1004, 1007; imperialist threat of, 56, 275–77; Latin America involvement by, 277, 446–47, 818, 829, 988, 1000n26; Latinness and, 168, 170; melting pot model and, 970–71, 974; mimicry of ideology and, 479, 481–82; Multiculturalism and, 974; origins of, 127–28; the other and, 818–19, 930; Pan Americanism and, 170, 554; paternalism and, 541; pragmatism and, 426–27, 485–86, 493n5, 775, 817; protector/protectorate relationship with, 452, 455–56; racial discourse in, 989–90, 1000n30; regionalism and, 712; sociocultural structures and, 125, 229; spirit and, 487; utilitarianism and, 93, 130, 209, 221, 282, 479–80; whites as minority and, 606; yankismo and, 129–30. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons; Civil Rights Movement in U.S.; differences and commonalities in the Americas; North America; U.S. collections; U.S. exhibitions; specific presidents
The United States Collects Pan American Art exhibit, Chicago, 434, 580–83, 859
U.S. art and society: overview of, 429; Bayón on art and opportunities in, 431, 535–40, 540n1; Martí on self-confident native art and, 514–19; Mérida on vitality in art and, 521–23; Mexican muralism critiques and, 429, 519–21; Sabogal on appreciation of indigenous culture in, 430–31, 532–34; self-confident native art and, 429; Torres-García on abstract forms versus mimicry in, 430, 523–31. See also United States
U.S. collections: overview of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 867–70; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 535–40, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; Barr on MoMA and, 558–61; exoticism and, 434, 572, 581–82; new artists and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17. See also United States; U.S. art and society; U.S. exhibitions; specific conferences and symposia; and museums
U.S. Department of State, 432, 433, 532, 541–47, 549–50, 554–57, 1088. See also Pan Americanism (Pan-Americanismo); United States
U.S. exhibitions: overview of, 429, 431–32, 558–61, 856, 867–70; aesthetic values and, 431, 535–37, 538–40, 540n1, 563–64; Argentine artworks and, 550, 553n2; Barr on MoMA exhibit and, 558–61; installation practice in art museums and, 45, 949–50, 1042–55, 1053nn2–3, 1054n14, 1055n20; new artists and, 795–96, 866–77, 877n4, 878n17; Shapiro on differences in Latin America art and, 434, 580–83, 859; traveling exhibitions list and, 532, 574–80, 897–901. See also Euro-American curatorial approach; representations in exhibitions; traveling exhibitions; United States; U.S. art and society; U.S. collections; specific conferences and symposia; specific exhibitions; and museums
U.S. Latinos. See Chicanos (Mexican Americans); Cuban Americans; Puerto Ricans in New York (Nuyoricans)
unity and unification: African populations and, 150, 158, 277; alliance of Latin America and, 425, 449–51; Anglo-Saxons and, 150–51, 153, 155, 234; Argentina and, 234–35, 252–53; art of Latin America and, 427–28, 646; Bolivia and, 157; Brazil and, 157; Chile and, 157, 196; Colombia and, 157, 195–97, 235–36; colonialism and, 160–62; construct of Latin America and, 58, 149–63, 178–80, 188n3, 1124; criollos and, 151, 277; Ecuador and, 157, 235; ethnic, 54, 231–36; Far-Western cultures and, 178–80, 188n3; geography of Latin America and, 156; Guatemala and, 157, 235; Hispanic America and, 157; homogenization and, 154; Iberian America and, 151, 157, 252–53; indigenous peoples and, 153, 157–58, 163; Indology and, 56, 245–55; languages of Latin America and, 151–54, 156, 159–60; Latin America as term of use and, 562, 568–69; “Latin Europe” and, 150; Latin-ness and, 150; mestizaje and, 150, 980n2; Mexico and, 157, 196–97, 235; Paraguay and, 157; Peru and, 234–35; political, 53–54, 193–200, 229, 234–35, 459–60, 701, 703; self-awareness for promotion of, 56, 277–83; social inequalities and, 152–53; sociocultural structures and, 152–54, 156, 159–60; superficial, 58–59, 224, 301–6, 306n3; Utopia and, 56, 245–55; Venezuela and, 157. See also spirit and spiritual unification
universalism: overview of, 388; aesthetics survey and, 342, 374, 379–80, 386–89; avant-garde and, 341, 344, 348–51, 946–47; through differences and, 341, 343, 344, 348–51, 381, 404–6, 946–47; indigenous cultures and, 351, 381; local and universal in art and, 342, 374, 386–89; mestizaje and, 1045; new art and, 338, 340, 341, 344, 348–51, 367–72, 529–31, 946–47; North America and, 54; the other and, 893–97; pre-Columbian cultures and, 348, 350–51; primitivism and, 351; race and, 54; Romanticism and, 1045–46; self-awareness and, 338, 340, 367–72, 396.
Uribe, Juan Camilo, 772, 915
Uruguay: activism and, 670; art and artists in, 830–31, 1088; art societies in, 553; economics and, 124; European art influences and, 582, 695; Hispanic American spirit and, 494n7; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; Indigenism and, 1093–94; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1059. See also River Plate (Río de la Plata) region
utilitarianism, 93, 130, 209, 221, 282, 479–80
Utopia (no-place): overview of, 50–59, 1099; Andrade, Mario de on, 89–95, 95nn1–2; Bacon on Peru as location of, 51, 73–81; Bingham’s “discovery” of Machu Picchu and, 81–85; Bomfim on holistic education system and, 55, 241–45; Columbus’s “discoveries” and, 50–51, 62–67, 99; Frank on spiritual unification and aesthetics and, 55–56, 255–59; García Calderón on, 228, 230; Indology and, 56, 245–55; More on sociocultural structures of, 51, 68–72, 72nn1–9, 90–91, 94, 262, 1099; O’Gorman on invention of Latin America and, 51–52, 95–104, 104n4; Peru as location of, 51, 73–81; Reyes on destiny of Latin America and, 55, 261–65, 265n1, 271; Reyes on Frank’s vision of, 259–61; Reyes on naming of Latin America and, 51, 86–88, 88n1; Vasconcelos on unity and, 56, 245–55; Zea on philosophical identity and, 180, 266–74. See also the Americas
V
Valdez, Luis, 588, 600–614, 614nn1–6, 615, 948
Valéry, Paul, 183–84, 692
Vallauri, Alex, 913, 915
Vanderbilt family, 56, 277, 537
Van Gogh, Vincent, 415, 536
Vasconcelos, José: biographical information about, 623; Chicano philosophies and, 624–25; on Hispanic Americanism and Pan Americanism, 459–67, 467n1; on la raza cósmica, 245, 512, 589, 614–20, 620nn1–3, 685; on unity, 54, 231–36, 589; on unity and Indology, 56, 245–55, 427
Vega, Jorge de la, 396–97, 664, 873, 915
Velasco, José María, 564, 657, 699
Venezuela: aesthetic value of art and, 566; African populations in, 158; art societies in, 553; avant-garde and, 677; economics and, 120; European art influences and, 582; homogenization of the Americas and, 126, 135; patronage and, 566; potential of, 109; rethinking Latin Americanism and, 1058; Symposium of the First Latin American Biennial of Sáo Paulo and, 771; unity and, 157, 195–96, 197, 235; U.S. exhibitions of artists from, 802, 804–5; U.S. sanctioned artists and, 554
Vergara, Carlos, 670
Veríssimo, José, 222–31, 331
Vespucci, Amerigo, 72n5, 87, 88, 89, 99, 166, 606, 1085
Villa, Esteban, 632, 636, 879, 880, 883–86, 1030
Villa, Pancho, 609–10, 622, 627–28
Voltaire, 88, 136, 231, 283, 328
el vulgo, 601, 614n1
W
Wallace, Henry A., 554, 556
Weber, Max, 319, 528–29, 538
Weitz, Robert L., 802–4
the West: ethnocentrism and, 629, 656, 799, 931, 962, 965; Latin America and, 178–88, 188n3, 188n5, 864–65, 1047, 1079, 1125; origins of, 111–12. See also the Americas; Europe
Weston, Edward, 428, 497–99
whites: melting pot model and, 146, 171, 182, 601–2; as minority in U.S., 606, 971–72; philosophies in Latin America and, 625; racial hierarchy and, 159, 175, 333; “whitening” and, 122, 425–26. See also Anglo-Saxon culture and Anglo-Saxons
Whitman, Walt, 367–68, 371, 524, 531, 824
Whitney Museum of American Art, 431, 535, 537–38, 869
Wight Art Gallery, Los Angeles, 808, 903
Williams, Raymond, 729, 980
Wilson, Woodrow, 233, 609
Winnipeg Art Gallery, Manitoba, Canada. See Cartographies exhibition, Manitoba, Canada
WPA (Works Progress [Projects] Administration), 429–30, 543–44
X
xenophobia, 629, 717, 737, 771
Xul Solar, 341, 343, 402–6, 915
Y
yankismo, 129–30
Ybarra-Frausto, Tomás, and topics discussed: El Movimiento, 45, 949–50, 1028–42, 1041n3; rasquachismo, 949, 1028, 1031–34
Yudice, George, 45, 947, 948, 982–97, 997nn1–2, 998nn3–4, 998nn6–8, 1000n26, 1000nn30–31
Yurkievich, Saúl, 594–95, 702, 719–25, 725n2
Z
Zapata, Emiliano, 609, 625–27, 772, 890, 924
Zea, Leopoldo, 180, 266–74
Zermano, Ando, 1034
zoot suit men (pachucos), 610–11, 623, 628–30, 632, 1025
Zumeta, César, 425, 449–51
Zum Felde, Albert, 55, 236–40, 240n1
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