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Index
Jennifer Van Horn
Description: Portraits of Resistance: Activating Art During Slavery
Portraits of Resistance: Activating Art During Slavery
Index
Author
Jennifer Van Horn
PublisherYale University Press
Copyright© 2022 by Jennifer Van Horn
Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-23619
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Index
A
abolitionism. See antislavery advocacy
Abraham (enslaved silversmith), 35, 40
absence: of enslaved people from historical visual and textual records, 19, 24, 26, 71, 218, 258, 260, 276
methodological significance of, 19, 26
accounting logs, 132, 136
acrobats, 56–57
advertisements. See runaway advertisements
aesthetic actions: Civil War as impetus for, 24
enslaved people’s variety of, 10–11, 192–93
humanity linked to, 20, 210–12
racist claims regarding, 23
subjectivity expressed through, 6, 7–8, 11
Thurston’s drawings as, 18. See also enslaved artists; iconoclasm; viewership
Affleck, Thomas: Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book, 133
Sugar Plantation Record and Account Book, 133
African Americans: as artists, 262, 270, 275–76
associated with the exotic, 21, 56, 77, 82, 86, 104
assumed deficiencies of, 3, 23, 30, 32–33, 44, 57, 93, 175, 197–203, 210–11, 224, 247, 255, 257–58
complexion of, 271
as entertainment spectacles, 56–60
“improvement” or “civilizing” of, 44–45
New Orleans Cotton Exposition and, 162–63
and photography, 270–73
and portraiture, 18, 212–14, 262, 275–76, 280n49
ridicule aimed at, 3, 26, 57–58, 60, 162
“scientific” racism concerning, 23, 32, 175, 198–200, 198, 211
white stereotypes about sexuality of, 32, 197. See also enslaved people; free Black people; stereotypes, racist
African religious practices, 251–53, 268
Agassiz, Louis, 199
agency: attributed to portraiture, 20
of enslaved people, 9, 154–56
Aiken Rhett House, Charleston, South Carolina, 193
Akan peoples, 6–7, 278n15
Albanez (ship), 14
Amans, Jacques Guillaume Lucien, 122
Portrait of Thomas Bryan Pugh, 122, 123
American Agriculturist (magazine), 133, 201
American Colonization Society, 113
American Revolution: freedom as ideal of, 4, 23, 75, 88–89, 105, 113
iconoclasm during, 70, 230, 232, 289n103
Lee’s service to Washington during, 72, 80, 81, 82, 119–20
Pine and, 52–53
self-emancipation by bondpeople during, 69, 91
Amistad (slave ship), 179
Angelou, Maya, 249
Anglican church, 231
Anglo-African Magazine, 213
aniconism, 151
Anthony, Violet, 140, 141, 142–43, 160
antislavery advocacy: backlash against, 22
in Boston, 182
in Britain, 43, 87, 151
growth of, 75, 87–90
images associated with, 85–88, 104, 180, 193–94
in Massachusetts, 45
in Newport, 2, 4, 15, 18
in Philadelphia, 16, 85–86, 119, 140, 142, 179–80
Apollo Belvedere, 199
Arlington House (Robert E. Lee plantation), Arlington, Virginia, 223, 255–56
art history: absence of Black subjectivities from traditional, 19, 24, 26, 71, 218, 258, 260, 276
alternatives to traditional, 26, 260
concept of the gaze in, 60, 62
museums’ role in, 258–60
nineteenth-century origins of American, 71
portraiture in traditional, 10, 18, 26, 55
presentism in, 24
artists: African Americans as, 262, 270, 275–76
as enslavers, 34–37, 39–40
hierarchy of media for, 48–49
labor required of, 33–34
nature as teacher of, 3, 41, 59
professionalization of, 38–39, 40, 51, 54, 60, 65, 71
self-portraits by, 65
signatures of, 59–60
status of, in Boston, 40, 46–47, 54–55. See also enslaved artists
Atlantic (magazine), 271
antiques dealers/market, northern involvement with, 223
white Southern participation in, 254–55
African American participation in, 254–56, 266
auctions/markets, for enslaved people: determinations of value for, 100–101, 136, 139, 144
enslaved people objectified in, 227
families separated at, 214, 249
McGillivray as auctioneer, 239
of Mount Vernon bondpeople, 214
representations of, 5, 195
visual scrutiny of enslaved persons at, 62, 100, 194
Augustus, William Jordan, 107
B
Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, second Lord, 21–22
baptism, 44
Baptists, 2
Barbados, 239
Barker, Deborah, 43, 71
Barnaby (enslaved housepainter), 39, 71
Barnes, Henry and Christian, 27, 30, 31, 33, 36, 41–48, 50–56, 58, 60, 62–67, 69–70
barrels. See hogsheads
Bartolozzi, Francesco, after Thomas Gainsborough, Ignatius Sancho, 87–88, 87
Bedford Plantation, 177
Ben (enslaved jockey), 129
benevolent intimacy, 153–54, 158
Berger, Maurice, 273
Berkeley, George, 38–39, 44, 77, 87
Berlin, Ira, 22
Bermuda, 38, 44
Bernard, Francis, 70
Berry, Daina Ramey, 144
Beyoncé, Lemonade, 170
B. F. Smith & Son, Frederick Douglass, 212
Biddle, Clement, 95–96
Bisland, Mary Louisa, 138, 138, 140, 143–44, 154, 157
Bisland, Thomas, 159
Bisland, William, 140, 143, 157, 159
Bisland family, 124, 127, 137–39, 147, 152–54, 157
Black Creek Plantation, Louisiana, 191–92
Black Lives Matter, 170
Black’s Law Dictionary, 184
bodies: artists’ rendering of, 137–38
determination of economic value from looking at, 100–102, 139
enslaved people’s aesthetic expression using, 193
iconoclasm and, 240
proxy white, as object of Black retribution, 220, 231, 239–40, 250–51
“scientific” studies of racial differences in, 198, 199
body servants. See manservants (enslaved)
Boldt, Janine, 200
Bond, Hannah, 181–83
Boston, Massachusetts: during American Revolution, 69–70
antislavery advocacy in, 182
art as a profession in, 40, 46–47, 54–55
enslaved artists and artisans in, 30, 33, 35, 43–47
popularity of portraiture in, 55
Savage’s Columbian Gallery in, 112
slavery in, 30, 45–46, 52, 62, 286n61
whites’ “civilizing” of Black people in, 44–45
Boston Gazette (newspaper), 37
Boston Museum and Gallery of Fine Arts, 112
Boston News-Letter (newspaper), 27, 44, 54
Boston Port Act, 69
Boston Tea Party, 232
Bourn, Melatiah, 30, 64, 70, 282n4
Boylston, Nicholas, 27, 29, 55
branding, 15, 251
Britain: antislavery advocacy in, 43, 87, 151
iconoclasm in, 231
as source for depictions of enslaved people, 77–80, 84, 124, 126, 128–30
as source for white plantation culture, 128–30, 177, 225
brooch, 63
Brooke, William Henry. See Starlin, J. M.
Brown, Henry “Box,” 16–17
Brown, Michael, 170
Browning, Robert, “My Last Duchess,” 150–51
Bruce, Blanche Kelso, 161–63
Brune, John, 147
Buck, Susan, 193
Burnham, Thomas Mickell, The Young Artist, 25–26, 25
C
Caldwell, Susannah, 67
Calhoun, John C., 220, 223, 231
Calvert, Cecil. See Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, second Lord
Calvert, Charles, 78, 79
Cameron, James, 131
Col. and Mrs. James A. Whiteside, Son Charles, and Servants, 126, 127, 131, 157
Camp, Stephanie, 9, 204
Captain (enslaved manservant), 235–36, 236
Carey, Matthew, 85–86
caricature, 5–6, 17, 117, 213, 270. See also humor and satire
Carter, Cato, 166, 217
Carter, Charles, 226, 227
Carter family, 227
cartes de visite, 131–32, 235
Cartwright, Samuel, 199
Casey, Edward, 186–87
Casper, Scott, 117
Catholic Church, 231–32, 267–68
C. Flint & Jones (retailer), pier mirror and marble-topped table, 215, 216
Charleston, South Carolina, 220, 222, 225
Charleston Mercury (newspaper), 220
Charlotte (enslaved seamstress), 94
Chesnutt, Charles, “The Wife of His Youth,” 271
Chicago Renaissance, 262, 270
Chippendale, Thomas, “Fire Screens,” 241, 241
Christianity, 44, 231–32, 250
“civilizing” mission, 44
Civil War: enslaved people’s behavior during, 233–35
iconoclasm and, 222–24, 230–32, 238
meaning of portraiture transformed by, 24
as slave insurrection, 224
slavery as fundamental issue of, 22, 24, 117
Clark, G. R., 133
Clark, William, Shipping Sugar, 8–9, 8
Clarke, Susanna, 52
Clarkson, Thomas, 87
Clay, Henry, 112–15
Clopper, Francis Cassatt, 242
Closterman, John, Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, and a Page, 77, 78, 82, 233
clothing: enslaved people’s, 72, 95–96, 108, 137, 147, 154, 193
exotic, 68, 77, 82, 97, 104, 149
resistance enacted through, 193
Sheels’s, 72, 95–96, 110. See also livery
Collas, Louis-Antoine, Portrait of a Free Woman of Color Wearing a Tignon, 155–56, 155
Colored People’s Exhibition, New Orleans Cotton Exposition, 161–62, 170
color shops, 39
Columbian Gallery (Philadelphia, New York, Boston), 92, 104, 112
complexion/skin tone, of enslaved people/African Americans, 96, 136, 166, 271
conservation, of paintings, 118, 169, 228–29
as political action, 257–58
Constitutional Convention, 90
conversation pieces, 79–80
Cook, H. P., Possum am Sweet, 252, 253
Cooper, Samuel, 70
Copley, John Singleton: Black artists’ familiarity with work of, 44, 46–47, 54–55
as enslaver, 52, 286n61
European sojourn of, 69
Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Izard (Alice Delancey), 218, 219, 227, 256
Mrs. James Smith (Elizabeth Murray), 66, 67
Mrs. Thomas Gage, 67–68, 68
Nicholas Boylston, 27, 29
place of, in American art history, 71
political sympathies of, 69
portrait of Thomas Hutchinson, 230
portraits of Henry and Christian Barnes, 30
and the practice and status of art in Boston, 33, 39, 40, 46–48, 51–52, 54–56, 65, 69–70, 286n61
Ralph Inman, 47, 47
refusal to accept students, 51
and representations of Black people, 88
Self-Portrait, 52
Cornolius, Catherine, 192, 194, 204, 248
cotton, 23, 124, 128–30, 132–34, 137–39, 144–45, 147, 149, 151, 156–59, 161–63, 165, 175, 183, 215
Crafts, Hannah, The Bondwoman’s Narrative, 181–88, 181, 191, 194, 200, 203, 205, 207, 210, 213, 269
Craighead Plantation, Louisiana, 266
Craik, James, 110
Creoles, 128, 156–57, 189, 267–68
Cuffee (enslaved manservant/studio assistant), 30, 35–37, 39, 62, 71
curiosities, artistic and scientific, 56–60, 65–66
Custis, Eleanor Washington Parke (Nelly), 72, 84, 86, 91, 119
Custis, George Washington Parke (Wash), 72, 84, 92, 104, 111, 119–20, 256
Custis, John, 89
Custis, Mary, 256
Cyrus (enslaved waiter), 95
D
daguerreotypes, 131–32, 152, 209, 212, 215, 217
Darnall, Henry, III, 233, 233
Davis, Jefferson, 238, 256
death, portraiture and, 149–52
Declaration of Independence, 223
Delia (enslaved house servant): conditions of servitude of, 124, 136–39, 153–54, 159–60
death of, 149
enslavers of, 124, 127
feelings of, 153
freedom of, 159–60
personhood of, 147, 149
portrait of, 124, 125, 130–32, 136–38, 137 (detail), 143–44, 147, 149, 152, 154–58, 161, 170
Demah, Daphney, 27, 33, 42–43, 54, 69–71, 285n41
Demah, Prince: artist acquaintances of, 44
artistic career of, 22–23, 27, 30, 41–42, 54–60, 64–71, 262
artistic training of, 27, 33, 42, 47–48, 50–54
death of, 30, 69
enslaved by the Barneses, 27, 30, 33, 36–37, 42, 47–48, 56, 62–65
freedom of, 69, 282n1
labor performed by, 36–37, 47–48
life of, 27, 30, 69
literacy of, 50, 60
London sojourn of, 27, 37, 50–54
military service of, 30, 69
name of, 282n1
political sympathies of, 63, 70
Portrait of Christian Barnes, 30, 31, 54, 70–71
Portrait of Henry Barnes, 30, 31, 54, 70–71
Portrait of William Duguid, 27, 28, 30, 30 (detail of back stretcher), 50, 54, 59–60, 63, 69, 71
receipt for painting by, 30, 31, 64
reputation of, 33
resistance enacted through portraiture by, 23, 41, 63–64
self-portrait of, 65–66
Wheatley’s portrait possibly painted by, 44
will made by, 69, 282n1
depictions of enslaved people: accounting records vs., 132–33, 136
as anonymous/interchangeable/typical, 82, 85–86, 119–20, 128–30
antislavery advocacy’s use of, 85–88
Black viewership of, 111–12
British sources for, 77–80, 84, 124, 126, 128–30
enslavers’ commissioning of, 23, 122–33, 136–37, 139, 144, 152–64
free Black portraits as source for, 155–56, 160
freedom in relation to, 154–56, 158–60
ghost value in, 144, 149–52, 155, 160–61, 163–64, 171
hierarchies evident in, 142–44, 156
humanity revealed in, 84–87
Inman’s approach to, 115, 117
lost/unpreserved, 19, 26, 122
meanings of, 20, 75, 124, 132
national trends in, 139
negotiations of freedom involved in, 158–60
photography as model for, 131–32
practical uses of, 98–102
rarity of, 122, 124, 136
in runaway advertisements, 98–100
Savage’s approach to, 82–83
soul value in, 144–49, 152, 155
specific/individualized, 82–87, 98–100, 139
whiteness constructed by use of, 20–22. See also enslaved attendant format; kneeling slave model
Deroy, Laurent, after Johann Moritz Rugendas, Marché aux Nègres, 5–6, 5, 17
DeWolf, Thomas Norman, 169
Diallo, Ayuba Suleiman (Job ben Solomon), 151
Dickens, Charles, Bleak House, 184
dishumanization, 15, 93, 119–20, 210, 222, 224, 243, 279n36
dogs, enslaved people likened to, 232–33
Dolly (enslaved nanny), 234, 235–38, 256
domestic servants (enslaved): comportment of, 95–96
field laborers compared to, 269
interaction of, with portraits and other possessions of white enslavers, 189, 200, 227, 242, 248–49, 264–66
paint processing duties of, 34
portraits of, 131
skills of attention and circumspection learned by, 206. See also enslaved attendant format; manservants (enslaved)
dominance. See power and dominance
Douglass, Frederick, 101, 184, 186, 190–91, 194, 203, 204, 209–13, 215, 270, 273, 276, 308n36
photograph of, 212
“Pictures and Progress,” 210–12
Douglass, Robert M. J., Jr., 213
Down in the Delta (film), 249
Downs, Joseph, 258
Drake, David, 7–8, 15, 17
storage jar, 7–8, 7
drivers, 159, 244–45. See also head drivers
Du Bois, W. E. B., 270
“The New Negro in Art: How Shall He Be Portrayed[?],” 262
Duchamp, Bernard, 149
Duguid, William, 27, 28, 30, 50, 56, 59, 62–63, 69, 71
Dunbar, Erica Armstrong, 105
Duncanson, Robert, 40
Dunlap, William, The History of the Rise and progress of the Arts of Design in the United States, 71
Dupuy, Charles, 113–15, 114
Dupuy, Charlotte, 113–15
E
Earl, Ralph, Gentleman with Attendant, 60, 61, 259
Eastern apparel, 68, 77, 82
Edgefield, South Carolina, 6–7
Eldorado Plantation, South Carolina, 224, 230, 254
Elliott, Thomas, 246
Ellison, Ralph, 17–18
Emancipation Proclamation, 264
emotional labor, 154, 200–201, 205
Enlightenment, 32
enslaved artists: African sources for, 5–7
American Revolution’s effect on, 70
in Boston, 30, 33, 35, 43–47, 54–55
conditions under which they practiced their art, 47–49
as entertainment spectacles, 56–60, 65–66
intended viewers of, 7–8
limited opportunities for, 40–41, 48, 52–56, 59, 64–67, 71
Manzano, 48
monetary arrangements with, 64
Pareja, 40–41
rarity and assumed inferiority of, 23, 30, 32–33, 41, 57–60, 64
resistance enacted in exercise of their craft by, 41
silhouette artists, 30, 33, 49, 57, 99
white sitters’ relations with, 30, 56, 59–60, 62, 67–69, 71
white women’s promotion of careers of, 42–44, 69. See also Demah, Prince; enslaved people: in the painting trade; Thurston, Neptune
enslaved attendant format, 77–80, 82, 84–85, 88, 124, 126, 128–29. See also Savage, Edward: The Washington Family
enslaved people: absence of, from historical visual and textual records, 19, 24, 26, 71, 218, 258, 260, 276
aesthetic actions of, 10–11
agency of, 9, 154–56
behavior expected of, 30, 62, 64, 196
branding of, 15, 251
clothing and possessions of, 72, 95–96, 106–8, 137, 147, 154, 193, 241
complexion of, 96, 136, 166
constitutional status of, 90
daguerreotypes commissioned by, 209
dishumanization of, 15, 93, 119–20, 210, 222, 224, 243, 279n36
dogs likened to, 232–33
early examples of as artists, 30, 33
economic value of, 100–101, 104, 133, 136–39, 144, 152, 160, 227, 238, 240
emotional labor of, 154, 200–201, 205
freedom desired and sought by, 22, 23, 45, 90–91, 105, 113–15, 238 (see also manumission of; self-emancipation of)
gentility asserted by, 240–43, 269
goods purchased and used by, 106–7, 111–12
humanity of, 9–10, 20, 22, 75, 76, 85, 87, 91–93, 105, 112, 118–20, 144–49, 153–55, 161, 170, 222, 227
iconoclastic acts of, 10, 218, 220–24, 228–30, 232, 238–43
linked to hogsheads, 11–15
manumission of, 23, 40, 45, 49, 70, 88–89, 108, 114, 158–60, 164, 266–67, 303n80, 303n81
memories of enslavement held by, 266
monetary arrangements with, 90, 106, 159
names of, 102
negotiating power of, 159
perceived objecthood of, 20, 23, 93–94, 100, 139, 227
in the painting trade, 22–23, 30, 33–37, 39–41
paternalism toward, 152–54
portraiture as site of resistance for, 9–10
and power relationships, 30, 62–63, 86–87, 105–6, 110–11, 136, 152–54, 159, 161, 186–88, 231, 238, 242, 254
prints purchased by, 191–94
as property, 4, 14, 20, 77, 80, 98, 100–102, 110–13, 154, 159, 160, 165, 197, 211, 215, 222, 227, 238, 249
racist stereotypes of, 2–3, 23, 26, 50, 97
as reflections of enslavers, 95
regarded as anonymous/interchangeable, 86, 101–2, 118–20, 129, 294n65
relationship of, to the genre of portraiture, 10, 280n49
as relatives of enslavers, 165–69
self-emancipation of, 16–17, 35–37, 45, 49, 53–54, 69, 76, 90–91, 105, 108, 113, 120, 158, 182, 199, 204, 237–38, 251
subjectivity of, 6, 11, 15, 20, 26, 144–49, 184, 186, 188, 203, 215
supposed consent of, 154–56
terminology of, 277n3
trades of, 34–35
viewership of, 110, 112, 151, 161, 172–75, 181–217
violence against/maltreatment of, 17, 89–90, 94, 133–34, 136, 165, 194, 196, 213, 231, 235, 248, 250–51
violence used by, 165. See also African Americans; auctions/markets; depictions of enslaved people; domestic servants (enslaved); enslaved artists; enslaved women; iconoclasm; manservants; viewership
enslaved women: iconoclastic acts of, 243
resistance enacted through viewership by, 23–24, 203–4, 209
resistance strategies of, 268–69
enslavers: artists as, 37, 39–40, 284n24
attitudes and strategies of, concerning Black people, 22–23
Barnes family, 27, 30, 33, 36–37, 42, 47–48, 56, 62–65
Berkeley, 77
Clay, 113
Copley, 52, 286n61
enslaved people as reflections of, 95
enslaved people as relatives of, 165–69
Hawes, 39
Hesselius, 294n61
Jefferson, 32, 166
Kittredge family, 264, 266–68
Manigault family, 223, 228, 230–38, 253
McGillivray family, 218, 222, 225, 239–40
Middleton family, 218, 223, 242, 249
paternalism of, 152–54
Peale, 49–50
portraits of enslaved people commissioned by, 23, 122–33, 136–37, 139, 144, 152–64
and power relationships, 30, 62–63, 86–87, 105–6, 110–11, 136, 152–54, 159, 161, 186–88, 231, 238, 242, 254
Pugh, 122, 128, 133, 158–61, 165, 171, 266, 268
Reynolds, 53, 286n64
Royall, 77
slavery’s effect on morality of, 89–90
Smibert, 35–37, 77
Stuart family, 1–2
terminology of, 277n3
Velázquez, 40–41
violence used by, 17, 89–90, 94, 133–34, 136, 194, 196, 198, 213, 231, 235, 248, 250
Ward, 240
Washington, 4, 14, 23, 72, 84, 88–97, 100–102, 104–5, 108–9, 117, 119–21, 214, 227
Wheeler family, 181–82, 213
Wollaston, 37. See also iconoclasm; plantations and plantation owners
Episcopalians, 268
Eppes, Susan, 238
Eppes family, 227
Equiano, Olaudah, 87, 151, 152, 251–52
Erddig House, Wales, 129
Eustatia Plantation, Mississippi, 132, 133
excrement, used for attacks on the powerful, 231, 232
exoticism: Black people associated with, 21, 56, 77, 82, 86, 104
of clothing, 68, 77, 82, 97, 104, 149
of goods, 21, 77, 86, 104
Native Americans associated with, 97
F
“face jugs,” 6–7, 6
The Federal Edifice, in Massachusetts Centinel, 103, 103
Federalism, 103
Fedric, Francis, 151–52, 200
Feke, Robert, 77
Portrait of Isaac Royall and Family, 76, 77, 84
fire, 250–51
fire screens, 218, 221, 240–43, 241, 250–53
Fitzhugh, William, 177
Fitzhugh-Bedford family, 177
Flatley, Jonathan, 208
Fleetwood, Charles Wilson, Jr., 145, 146, 147
Fleischbein, Franz (possible attribution), Four Children in a Louisiana Landscape, 168–69, 168
Flynn, Katherine, 181–82
folktales, 186–87
Fowler, Trevor Thomas (possible attribution), Four Children in a Louisiana Landscape, 168–69, 168
Fox-Amato, Matthew, 153
Franklin, Benjamin, 86
Fraser, Charles, 226
Frederick (enslaved butler): conditions of servitude of, 124, 136–37, 153
death of, 153, 302n63
enslavers of, 124, 153
feelings of, 153
freedom of, 159–60, 303n80
personhood of, 147
portrait of, 124, 126, 130–32, 136–37, 139, 143–45, 145 (detail), 147, 152, 154–55, 157, 158, 160–63, 169–70
Frederick Douglass’ Paper (newspaper), 213
free Black people: antislavery advocacy by, 22
depictions of, 18, 145, 146, 147, 155–56, 160
as laborers and tradesmen, 6, 8, 40
in London, 53–54
as mistresses, 164
in New Orleans, 155–56
of Newport, 4
in Philadelphia, 90–91, 106, 110
prints purchased by, 111–12
racist stereotypes of, 3
relocation to Africa (colonization) of, 113
restrictions on, 104, 155–57
whites’ relations with, 62
Freedmen’s Bureau, 222, 267
freedom: American ideal of, 4, 18, 23, 75, 88–89, 105, 113
of Black people in the North, 90
enslaved people’s desire and claims for, 22, 23, 45, 90–91, 105, 113–15, 238
falsely attributed to enslaved people by enslavers, 154–56
portraiture of white subjects associated with, 264–65
viewership associated with, 186, 204, 209, 211, 215. See also manumission; self-emancipation
French Revolution, 88, 230
Fry, Joshua. See Jefferys, Thomas
Frye, William, 131
Portrait of Isaac Lane, Wife Mary Pride Lane, Horse, Dog and Enslaved Body Servant, 126, 127, 129, 157
Fuentes, Marisa, 9
G
Gage, Margaret, 67–69, 68
Gainsborough, Thomas, 67
Ignatius Sancho (Bartolozzi engraving after), 87–88, 87
Galt, John, 41
Garner, Eric, 170
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 181
Gauntt, Jefferson, Violet Anthony, 140, 141, 142, 160
gaze: Black females’, 204
power relationship expressed through, 60, 188, 194–97
racial meanings of, 60–63, 67, 194–97
theoretical concept of, 60, 62. See also surveillance; viewership
gentility, enslaved people’s performances of, 95, 97, 108, 115, 241–43
geographic intelligence, 188
George IV, Prince of Wales, 88
Germann, Jennifer, 88
ghost stories, 169
ghost value, 144, 149–52, 155, 160–61, 163–64, 171
Ginsburg, Rebecca, 188
Giotto, 3
glance, 186–87, 203
Goble, Myron, 249
Gordon, John Montgomery, 177–78, 181
Gough family, 164
Gowrie Plantation, South Carolina, 235
Grant, Oscar, 170
Grasser family, 169
Gray, Selena, 255–56
Great Migration, 270
Greene, Nathaniel (general), 110
Grigsby, Darcy, 85
Gullah, 251, 253
Gustin, Sarah Ogden, 59–60, 59, 68
H
Hackwood, William, for Josiah Wedgwood and Sons, medallion, 86, 86
hags, 253
Hall, Esther, 164
Hallowell, Benjamin, Jr., 70
Hamilton, Gawen, group portrait, probably of the Raikes family, 79, 80, 84
Hammond, James Henry, 134, 159
Hampton Plantation (Capt. Charles Ridgely plantation), Towson, Maryland, 175, 177, 187–88, 187, 195, 196
hands, 137–39
Harper’s Bazar (magazine), 179
Harper’s Weekly (magazine), 220, 246–47, 264
Harrison, Henry, 164–66, 168
Hartman, Saidiya, 19, 120, 174, 259
Harvard University, 44
Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) peoples, 97
Haviland, Laura, 248
Hawes, Benjamin, 39
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, House of the Seven Gables, 180, 183
Hayman, Francis. See Jefferys, Thomas head drivers, 134–36, 159
headwraps. See tignons
Hemings, Sally, 166
Herring family, 172, 215
Hesselius, John, 177, 294n61
Charles Calvert and Once-Known Enslaved Attendant, 78, 79, 84
Hewitt, Alexander, 34
Heyward Plantation, South Carolina, 223
Hill, Ginger, 211
Hinton, Charles Lewis, 255
Hoare, William, 151
Hogarth, William, 42
Taste in High Life (etching after), 82, 82, 84
hogsheads: associated with freedom, 17
enslaved people linked to, 11–15
as ground for Thurston’s portraits, 1, 4, 6–9, 11–12, 18
labor involving, 8–9, 11–12
laughing barrels, 17–18
as vehicles for torture, 17
Holcombe, William H., 199
Holmes, Nancy, 111
Homer, Winslow, after, The Family Record, 178–79, 178
Honeywell, Martha Ann, 57, 59
hooks, bell, 204, 209, 273
Hopkins, Samuel, 18
horses, 127, 130, 135, 136
House Beautiful (magazine), 255
housepainting, 30, 38–41
Houston Chronicle (newspaper), 117–18
Hovenden, Thomas, The Old Nurse’s Visit (engraving after), 201–3, 202
Howard, Henry, Madewood Plantation, 123, 124
Hudson, Julien, 65
humanity: of Black and enslaved people, 9–10, 20, 22, 75, 76, 85, 87, 91–93, 105, 112, 118–20, 144–49, 153–55, 161, 170, 222, 227
iconoclasm as means of asserting, 224
invocation and negation of, by enslavers, 9, 92, 153–55, 161, 170, 279n36
portraiture as rendering of, 20, 147, 152, 276
shared, 20, 85, 211
and soul value, 144–49, 152
viewership as means for expression of, 20, 210–12. See also dishumanization; subjectivity
Hume, David, 32
humor and satire: Black people as target of, 3, 26, 57–58, 60, 69, 162
Black people’s use of, 5–6, 186–87, 193, 197
enslavers as target of, 89–90
fashion as subject of, 82
resistance enacted through, 17–18, 186–87, 197
Thurston’s use of, 17
Washington’s enslaved manservants as subject of, 117–18
white people as target of, 5–6, 89–90. See also caricature; inversion, of power relationships
Hunt, Charles, after W. Summers, The Portrait, 57–58, 58, 69
Hunter, William, 3
Huntingdon, Countess of, 43, 44
Hutchinson, Thomas, 230
I
iconoclasm: during American Revolution, 70, 230, 232, 289n103
in Britain, 231
Civil War and, 222
contemporary, 259–60
creative function of, 222, 239–40
description of acts of, 230
emotions expressed through, 247–50
enslaved people’s acts of, 10, 218, 220–24, 228–30, 232, 238–43
enslaved people’s appropriation of enslavers’ art, 243–47
gendering of, 243
historical instances of, 230
meanings of, 24, 222, 223, 224
Motley and, 267
Native Americans’ acts of, 231–32
political meanings of, 222–24, 230–32, 238
power relationships challenged by, 231–32, 238
racial conflicts over, 222
as resistance, 224, 243, 258–59
and social status, 240–43
white Southerners’ acts of, 238
spiritual significance of, 251–53
Thurston’s drawings as, 15
Union Army’s acts of, 223, 227, 228, 230, 238, 255–56
vandalism vs., 223–24
Igbo peoples, 151, 252
imagination, 209–10, 213–15
Inman, Henry, after Edward Savage, The Washington Family, 112–13, 112, 115, 115 (detail), 117
Inman, Richard, 47, 47
Intolerable Acts, 69
inversion, of power relationships, 17, 63, 111, 186, 231, 239–40, 246–47
Islam, 151
it-narratives, 226
Izard, Ralph, 218, 219
J
Jack (enslaved housepainter), 39, 71
Jackson, Mattie, 193–94
Jacobs, Ellen, 210
Jacobs, Harriet, 196, 205, 209–10, 213
Jefferson, Peter. See Jefferys, Thomas
Jefferson, Thomas, 32, 43–44, 67, 166, 197–98, 206, 227
Jefferys, Thomas, after Francis Hayman (cartouche) and Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson (map), A Map of the Most Inhabited Part of Virginia, 12, 12
Jim Crow era, 17
Jocelyn, Nathaniel, Cinqué: The Chief of the Amistad Captives, 179–80, 214
Sartain mezzotint after, 179, 186
Joe (enslaved manservant), 108
John Baptiste (freedom seeker), 158
Johnson, Daniel, 191
Johnson, Eastman, Washington’s Kitchen at Mount Vernon, 214
Johnson, George W., Vegetable Woman, 172, 174
Johnson, Isaiah, 191
Johnson, Jane, 182–83, 191
Johnson, Joshua, 33, 59–60, 71
Sarah Ogden Gustin, 59–60, 59, 68
Johnston, James Cathcart, 112
Jones, Charles C., 251
Jones, John, 200–201
Jones, Joseph, 200
Jones, Thomas, 184
Judge, Ona, 105
Jule (former enslaved person), 248–49
K
Kant, Immanuel, 32
Kaphar, Titus, 259–60
Jaavon with Unknown Gentleman, 259–60, 261
Kellogg firm, 117
Kikongo peoples, 6–7
Kitley, John, 49
Kittredge, Ernest Eaton (E. E.), 267
Kittredge family, 266–68
Kittredge Sims, Emma, 264–66, 275
kneeling slave model, 86
Knox, Henry, 70
Kongolese religious practices, 6, 252, 268
Kühn, Justus Engelhardt, Henry Darnall III, 233, 233
L
Lafayette, Marquis de, 88, 110
Lambdin, James Reid, 124, 139–40
Mary Louisa Lavinia Witherspoon Bisland, 138, 138, 143–44
Portrait of Delia, 124, 125, 130–32, 136–40, 137 (detail), 143–44, 147, 149, 152, 154–58, 161, 170
Lambdin, Samuel Hopkins, 124, 140
Lane, Isaac and Mary, 126, 127, 136
Lane, Lunsford, 205
laughing barrels, 17–18
Law, Eliza Custis, 111
Lear, Tobias, 91, 95, 111
Le Brun, Charles, Expressions de passion de l’âme, 4
Lee, Philip, 111
Lee, Robert E., 223, 255–56
Lee, William, 72, 80, 81, 82, 94, 106, 111, 119–20
Levine, Robert, 180
Lewis, Frances, 192
Lewis, Lawrence, 94
Lewis, William, 193
Lhermitte, René, Plan, Profil et Distribution du Navire La Marie Séraphique de Nantes, 12, 13, 14
Liberator (newspaper), 182
Life (magazine), 271
Lincoln, Abraham, 193–94, 238, 264, 273–74
Lion, Jules, Asher Moses Nathan and His Son, 166, 167
literacy, 15, 50, 60, 106, 183, 192, 204, 238
livery, 72, 78, 79, 82, 86, 95–96, 99, 108, 110
Lloyd, Anne, 185, 190, 206
Lloyd, Edward, IV, 185, 190, 206
Lloyd, Edward, V, 184, 194
Lloyd, Elizabeth, 185, 190, 206
Long, Edward, History of Jamaica, 32
Longwood (Haller Nutt house), Mississippi, 137, 139, 140, 143, 152, 153, 163, 169–70
Louisiana Civil Code, 158
Louis-Philippe, duc d’Orléans, 96
Louverture, Toussaint, 162, 213
Louvre, Paris, 228
Loyalists, 30, 47, 63, 69–70, 88, 232
Lyle, William, 192
M
Macaulay, Catharine, 50–51, 51
Madewood Plantation (Thomas Pugh plantation), Louisiana, 122, 123, 124, 133–36, 158–59, 161, 163–66, 168, 170–71, 213, 266
Manigault, Ann Ashby, 228, 228, 240, 258
Manigault, Charles Izard, 218, 223, 227–28, 230–33, 238, 240, 242, 243–45, 244, 247, 253–54, 256–57, 271
“Description of our Family Portraits,” 225–26, 244
“Description of Paintings at No. 6 Gibbes Street, Charleston, So. Ca., the property of Charles Is, 228, 229
Manigault, Gabriel, 228, 228, 240, 258
Manigault, Louis, 227, 235–38, 247, 256
runaway notice posted by, 234, 235, 237–38, 256
Manigault, Louis (son), 235–36, 236
Manigault, Peter, 207–8
Manners, John, Marquis of Granby, 82
Manservants (enslaved), 36–37, 72, 95–96, 106. See also domestic servants (enslaved); enslaved attendant format
Manuel (enslaved trainer), 129
manumission, 23, 40, 45, 49, 70, 88–89, 108, 114, 158–60, 164, 266–67, 303n80, 303n81
Manzano, Juan Francisco, 48, 247–48
Marcus (enslaved waiter), 109
Marie-Séraphique (ship), 12, 13, 14
markets. See auctions/markets
Martin, Jack, 49, 56–57, 71
Martin, Louisa Sidney, 24, 122, 123, 134, 136–37, 139, 143, 158, 159, 161, 163–65, 168, 170, 204, 213, 217, 266, 273
Martin, Trayvon, 170
Maryland Gazette (newspaper), 91
Massachusetts Centinel (newspaper), 103, 103
McElroy, Guy, 18
McGillivray, Alexander Chandler, 225, 239, 312n2
McGillivray family, 218, 220, 225, 252, 257
McInnis, Maurie, 225
media, hierarchy of, 48–49
Meller, John, 129
Melville, Herman, Pierre, 180, 183
Mendenhall, Hiram, 113–14
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 228, 258
Meynell, Francis, View of the Deck of the Slave Ship Albanez, 14, 14
Middle Passage, 14, 15
Middleton, Arthur, 218, 219
Middleton, Williams, 218, 223, 227, 242, 249, 255, 256–57
Mignard, Pierre, Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth, 21, 21, 96
Miles, Ellen, 83
Miles, Lewis, 8
Miles, Tiya, 169
mimicry, 242–43
minkisi (power objects), 6, 252
Mirzoeff, Nicholas, 194
Mississippi Museum of Art, 152, 170
Missouri Compromise, 113
mixed-race persons, 49, 52, 84, 106, 128, 164–66, 168–69, 183, 266, 270. See also racial mixing
Moïse, Theodore Sydney (possible attribution), Four Children in a Louisiana Landscape, 168–69, 168
Mollie (enslaved nanny), 131, 131, 149, 153, 154
Montagu, Duke of, 87, 95
Moorhead, John and Sarah, 44
Moorhead, Scipio, 30, 43, 44, 71
Phillis Wheatley, Negro Servant to Mr. John Wheatley, of Boston (attributed), 44, 45
Morgan, Sharon Leslie, 169–70
Motley, Archibald, 267
Motley, Archibald J., Jr., 262, 264–70, 275–76
The Liar, 269–70, 269
Mending Socks, 262, 263, 264–66, 275–76
Mulatress with Figurine and Dutch Seascape, 270
The Octoroon Girl, 270
Motley, Emily Sims, 262, 263, 264–69, 275–76
Motley, Willard, 266
Mount Repose Plantation, Mississippi, 137, 140, 147, 154
Mount Vernon Plantation, 72, 74, 75, 80, 84, 86, 91–92, 105–10, 112, 115, 119–21, 151, 206, 214–15
Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 121, 214
Murray, Judith Sargent, 144, 152
Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts (MESDA), Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 258
museums, historical and display conventions of, 258–60
N
Nast, Thomas, Emancipation, 264–65, 265
Nathan, Achille, 166, 167
Nathan, Asher Moses, 166, 167
National Academy of Design, 140, 201, 214
Native Americans: aesthetic capabilities perceived of, 32
associated with the exotic, 97
assumed deficiencies of, 231
dispossession of, 98, 126, 180–81
as entertainment spectacles, 56–57
iconoclastic acts of, 231–32
“improvement” or “civilizing” of, 38, 44
pigment processing by, 41
Washington and, 97–98
whites’ attempted domination of, 22
Neagle, John, 113–15
Sketch of Charles Dupee, 113, 114
Nell, William Copper, 182
Nelson, Charmaine A., 18, 100
Nesbet, William, 57
New British Museum of American Art, Connecticut, 259
New England Museum, Boston, 112
New Orleans Cotton Exposition. See World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition (New Orleans, 1885)
Newport, Rhode Island, 1–2, 11–12, 15, 18
newspapers, 238–39, 241, 252, 253
New York Times (newspaper), 255, 273
Nivelon, François, The Rudiments of Genteel Behavior, 84
Noah (enslaved manservant), 126
Northup, Solomon, 134, 195–96
Nott, Josiah C., and George R. Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 198–99, 198, 211
Nutt, Haller, 129–30, 137, 139, 143–44, 145, 153, 161, 169
Nutt, Julia, 145, 153, 158, 161
Nutt, Prentiss, 130, 161
Nutt, Rush, 130
Nutt family, 124, 152, 153, 157
O
objecthood: enslaved people’s perceived, 20, 23, 93–94, 100, 139, 227
portraiture associated with, 20. See also property
Otis, James, 88
overdrivers, 134
P
Page, Thomas Nelson, Red Rock, 180–81, 183, 201
painters. See artists
Pareja, Juan de, 40–41
Parker, C. R. (attributed), Portrait of Frederick, 124, 126, 130–32, 136–37, 139, 143–44, 145, 145 (detail), 147, 152, 157, 158, 161–63, 169–70
Parks, Gordon, 271, 273
Mr. and Mrs. Albert Thornton, Mobile, Alabama, 272, 273
Partridge family, 153
pastels, 47–48, 55
paternalism, 152–54
Payne Limner (attributed), Alexander Spotswood Payne and His Brother, John Robert Dandridge Payne, with Their Nurse, 85, 85
Peale, Charles Willson, 49–50, 57, 65, 67, 69–70, 71, 82, 101, 118, 120, 189
The Edward Lloyd Family, 184, 185, 190, 194, 206
Peale, Rembrandt, 49–50
Pearse, William, 101
Pemberton, Mary, 36, 36
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 140
Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 85–86
Pepperrell family, 88
Persac, Marie Adrien, Riverlake Sugarhous, 135–36, 135
personhood. See humanity; subjectivity
Petrie, Alexander, 34–35, 40
coffeepot from shop of, 34, 35
Petworth House, 215
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: antislavery advocacy in, 16, 85–86, 119, 140, 142, 179–80
art market in, 46, 124
conventions for depicting Black people in, 140, 142
free Blacks in, 90–91, 106, 110
Lambdin’s career in, 124, 139–40
as national capital, 76
Peale’s museum in, 49, 57
President’s House, 23, 72, 84, 90–92, 96, 105–6, 108, 110
Sartain’s engraving of Savage’s The Washington Family in, 114, 117, 119
Savage’s Columbian Gallery in, 92, 104, 112
Philadelphia Artists’ Fund Society, 179, 214
Philadelphia City Anti-Slavery Society, 119
Philadelphia Gazette & Daily Advertiser (newspaper), 109
photography, 270–73. See also daguerreotypes; cartes de visite
physiognotrace, 49, 57
pigment processing, 33–35, 39–41
Pilgrimage Garden Club, 152, 170
Pinckney, Charles, 118
Pinckney, Thomas, 83–84, 224, 230, 247, 254
Pine, Robert Edge, 27, 50, 52–54, 65, 286n62
Catharine Macaulay (née Sawbridge), 50–51, 51
plantations and plantation owners: accounting logs of, 132–33, 132, 136
aesthetic effects of, 175, 177–78
arrival of Anglo-American, 127–28
art commissioned by, 23, 77, 79, 124, 126, 128–32
British cultural foundations of, 128–30, 177, 225
consumption of goods by, 124
economics of, 132–39, 157
estate views of, 129
racial hierarchy established in plan and architecture of, 187–89, 195–96. See also cotton; Southerners (white); sugar
Pleasants, Robert, 92
Poe, Edgar Allan, Life in Death (The Oval Portrait), 150–51
Pointon, Marcia, 85, 215
Po’pay, 231–32
Porter, James A., 18
Portman, Christiaan Julius Lodewyck, George and Martha Washington at Leisure on the Grounds of Mount Vernon, 86
portraiture: accommodation to sitters’ expectations and desires in, 64–65
African Americans and, 18, 212–14, 262, 275–76, 280n49
during and after enslavement, 278n26
agency attributed to, 20
during American Revolution, 70
anti-Blackness at heart of American, 9–10
Black resistance through, 9–11, 15, 17–18, 63–64
as a craft, 33
in Crafts’s The Bondwoman’s Narrative, 182
and death, 119
enslaved people’s relationship to the genre of, 10, 280n49
enslavement practices coextensive with, 20–22
the gaze in practice of, 62–63
humanity rendered by, 20, 147, 152, 276
intentional damaging of, 70
labor required by, 33–34
objecthood/objectification associated with, 20
photography and, 212
popularity of, 19
scholarship on, 278n25, 280n49
sexualization in, 67–69
white Southerners’ antebellum use of, 23, 139, 152–58, 225–27
white Southerners’ concerns about, during Civil War, 218, 225–28
white Southerners’ postbellum use of, 24
spiritual powers associated with, 251–53
subjectivity associated with, 20, 26, 144–45, 147, 149–50, 225–27
temporality associated with, 149–52
Thurston’s drawings as, 1, 4, 7, 9–11, 15, 17
traditional art historical approaches to, 10, 18, 26, 55
whiteness as construction of, 9–10, 20–22, 26, 179–81, 183, 190, 256, 258, 276
of white subjects, associated with Black people’s freedom, 264–65. See also depictions of enslaved people
Portsmouth, Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of, 21
Posey, Hercules, 91, 105
Powell, Richard J., 18, 179, 270
power and dominance: Black people’s assertion of, 17, 24, 30, 60, 63, 67
in enslaver-enslaved relationships, 30, 62–63, 86–87, 105–6, 110–11, 136, 152–54, 159, 161, 186–88, 200–201, 231, 238, 242, 254
the gaze as instrument of, 60, 188, 194–97
iconoclasm as challenge to, 231–32, 238
inversion of, 17, 63, 111, 186, 231, 239–40, 246–47
plantation architecture and plan as expression of, 187–89, 195–96
portraiture as instrument of, 21–22, 30, 60, 62–63, 67
of whites over Black people, 21, 53, 62, 94–97, 98
of whites over Native Americans, 22, 97–98
President’s House, Philadelphia, 72, 84, 90–92, 96, 105–6, 108, 110
Prichard, James Cowles, Head of Rameses, from The Natural History of Man, 209, 209
prints: enslaved people’s purchase of, 191–94
free Blacks’ purchase of, 111–12
property: enslaved people as, 4, 14, 20, 77, 80, 98, 100–102, 110–13, 154, 159, 160, 165, 197, 211, 215, 222, 227, 238, 249
enslaved people’s emotional ties to, 243–50, 254–56, 264, 267
enslaved people’s seizure of, 220–24, 228, 230, 254–55, 267. See also objecthood
Protestant Reformation, 230
Pueblo peoples, 231–32
Pugh, Augustin, 158, 165
Pugh, David, 165
Pugh, Eliza Foley, 122, 129, 164–65
Pugh, James, 166, 168
Pugh, Robert, 168
Pugh, Thomas: British culture as model for, 129
death of, 149, 153, 160–61, 165
as enslaver, 122, 128, 133, 158–61, 165, 171, 266, 268
mixed-race child of, 164–65
plantation house of, 122, 124
as plantation manager, 133–37
political leanings of, 157
portrait of, 122, 123, 124
will made by, 158–61, 164–65
Pugh, Whitmell, 165
Pugh, William Scott, 165
Puritans, 231
Purvis, Robert, 179
Pusey family, 189, 190
R
racial mixing, 50, 67, 136, 166, 168. See also mixed-race persons
racism: in New England, 2–3
at New Orleans Cotton Exposition, 162
portraiture and, 9–10
“scientific” claims underpinning, 23, 32, 175, 198–200, 198, 210, 211. See also stereotypes, racist
Raikes family, 79, 80
Randolph family, 177, 200
rape, 165, 213
rebellions (revolt), by enslaved people, 8, 88, 179, 239
Razolini, Onorio, 78
Reconstruction, 161, 181, 266, 271
Reed, Mr. (former enslaved person), 248
religion. See African religious practices; Christianity
resistance: clothing as vehicle for, 193
community and humanity claimed through acts of, 9
covert, 243
defined, 9
Demah’s portraits as, 23, 41
gendered, 204, 209, 268–69
humor as means of, 17–18, 186–87
iconoclasm as, 224, 243, 258–59
newspapers as instrument of, 238–39
portraiture as site for, 9–11, 15, 17–18, 63–64
Savage’s The Washington Family as denial of, 105–6, 110, 111, 115
scholarship on, 21, 278n21
Thurston’s portraits as, 9, 11, 15, 17–18, 26
viewership as means of, 23–24, 175, 184, 186–88, 203–4, 209–17. See also iconoclasm
Retreat Plantation, Georgia, 200
Revelation, Book of, 8, 17
Reynolds, Joshua, 33, 48, 53, 55, 82, 286n64
Richardson, Joseph, Sr., George Washington Peace Medal, 97–98, 97
Richmond (enslaved son of Hercules Posey), 105
Ridgely, Eliza, 175, 176, 177
Ridgely family, 175, 177, 188
Riley, John, 83–84, 94, 101, 118
Riverlake Plantation, Mississippi, 135, 135
Roane, William, 108
Robertson, William, History of Scotland, 50
Robinson, Solon, 133
Root, Marcus, 144
Roseland, Harry, Was It for the Best? 273–75, 274
Roupell, George, Peter Manigault and His Friends, 207–8, 207, 247
Royal Academy, London, 50, 53
Royall, Isaac, Jr., 76, 77, 84, 87
Rugendas, Johann Moritz, Marché aux Nègres, Laurent Deroy lithograph after, 5–6, 5, 17
runaway advertisements, 35–37, 49, 62, 90–91, 98–100, 109, 234, 235, 237–38, 237, 256. See also self-emancipation
Russell, Jonathan, 12
Ryan, Homer: appearance of, 136
enslaved by Pugh, 122, 133, 158–61, 165, 171
feelings of, 153
freedom of, 158–61
lost portrait of, 122, 124, 129, 132, 136–37, 139, 143–44, 161, 163–64, 166, 168, 170–71
plantation role of, 134–37, 139, 153, 158–60, 165–66
portrait of, 158
relation of, to Pugh family, 164–66, 168
Ryan, Lucy, 164, 165
S
Saint Domingue, 88, 239
Sancan, Justin (attributed): Haller Nutt, 143–44, 143, 161
Winter Quarters, 129–30, 130, 143, 161
Sancho, Ignatius, 87–88, 87, 95, 98–99, 99, 144, 210
Sargent, Winthrop, 98–100, 144
Sartain, John, 113, 115
Cinqué: The Chief of the Amistad Captives (mezzotint after Nathaniel Jocelyn), 179, 180, 186
The Washington Family (mezzotint after Edward Savage), 116, 117, 119
satire. See humor and satire
Saunders, Richard, 37
Savage, Edward: background of, 77
The Landing of Columbus (copy), 104
Liberty, 104
The Washington Family (color copperplate engraving), 75, 94, 94 (detail), 290n7
The Washington Family (Inman painting after), 112–13, 112, 115, 115 (detail), 117
The Washington Family (National Gallery of Art), 23, 72, 73, 74–77, 80, 82–88, 83 (reflectogram of detail), 91–98, 101–6, 110–12, 118–22, 139, 206
The Washington Family (Sartain mezzotint after), 116, 117, 119
The Washington Family (stipple and line engraving), 74, 75, 76, 84, 101, 104–5, 110–11, 115, 122, 214, 290n7
The Washington Family (unknown artist’s lithograph after), 116
The Washington Family (Winterthur Museum), 83, 83, 83 (detail)
Scales, Catherine, 255, 268
Scott, Julius, 7–8
Sea Islands, Georgia, 251, 253
Secession, 157–58
Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, 200
Seeman, Erik, 149
segregation, racial in South, 17, 162, 270, 271
self-emancipation, 16–17, 35–37, 45, 49, 53–54, 69, 76, 90–91, 105, 108, 113, 120, 158, 182, 199, 204, 237–38, 251. See also runaway advertisements
sexuality: in enslaver-enslaved relationship, 89–90, 165, 250, 266
in the gaze, 62
portraiture and, 67–69
whites’ assumptions about Black, 32, 197. See also rape Seymour, Charles, Duke of Somerset, 77, 78, 233
Sharpe, Christina, 24, 259
Shaw, Gwendolyn DuBois, 18, 49
Sheels, Christopher: clothing and possessions of, 72, 95–96, 106–8, 110
comportment of, 84–86, 95, 97, 111
in copies of Savage’s The Washington Family, 112, 115, 115, 116, 117, 118
and emancipation, 76, 90–92, 106, 108–10, 120
labor performed by, 91, 106
life of, 72, 84, 106, 108–9, 111–12, 291n21
personhood of, 85–87, 92–95, 102, 112, 118–20
as property, 101–2, 110–12
in Savage’s The Washington Family, 72, 73–75, 74–77, 80, 84–87, 92–97, 100–105, 110, 118–21, 139, 206
as viewer of Savage’s The Washington Family, 110
as Washington’s enslaved manservant, 72, 84, 94–95, 108, 110, 111
Washington’s violence against, 94
Washington’s relations with, 102, 106
wife of, 106, 108–9, 111–12
silhouettes and silhouette artists, 30, 33, 49, 57, 98–100
Silk Hope plantation, South Carolina, 228, 230–31, 233, 240, 242, 245, 258
Sims, Robert Nicholls, 266
Slauter, Eric, 44
slavery: abolition of, 2, 46, 49, 85–86, 88, 90
afterlives of, 124, 170, 259
attempts to naturalize, 22, 23, 76
in Boston, 30, 45–46, 52, 62, 286n61
debates over, 88–89
economics of, 132–39, 157
expansion of, in nineteenth century, 113
intrinsic to formation of United States, 22, 90, 103
political meanings of, in United States, 22, 104
portraiture coextensive with, 20–22
white Southerners’ defense of, 23, 113, 139, 152–54, 157–58
in Tennessee, 157
variety of meanings and experiences of, 22
Washington’s political support of, 75, 90, 92, 104. See also antislavery advocacy; enslaved people; plantations and plantation owners
Sloan, Samuel, Longwood, Mississippi, 139, 140
Smibert, John, 30, 35–39, 46, 71
The Bermuda Group (Dean Berkeley and His Entourage), 38–39, 38, 77
Portrait of Mary Pemberton, 36, 36
Smith, Elizabeth, 30, 33, 42, 43, 47, 50, 54, 55, 64, 66–67, 66, 282n4
Smith, John, 39
Smith, Margaret Bayard, 206
Smith, Oliver, 214
Smith, Samuel, 16
Society of Artists, London, 55
Society of Friends, 2
Soest, Gerard, Cecil Calvert (Second Lord Baltimore), 21–22, 21
Somerset Decision, 88
soul value, 144–49, 152, 155
South Carolina Gazette (newspaper), 37
South Carolina State Gazette and Daily Advertiser (newspaper), 237, 237
Southerners (white): antebellum uses of portraiture by, 23, 139, 152–58, 225–27
defense of slavery by, 23, 113, 139, 152–54, 157–58
imagined relationships to enslaved people, 23, 95
post-bellum uses of portraiture, 24, 161
recovery of portrait collections by, 253–56
ridicule aimed at, 89–90
scrapbooks of, 256
and Secession, 157–58. See also plantations and plantation owners
Spain, 231–32
spectatorship. See viewership
Spires, Derrick R., 214
Starlin, J. M., after William Henry Brooke, Sale of Estates, Pictures and Slaves in the Rotunda, New Orleans, 194–95, 195
stereotypes, racist, 2–3, 23, 26, 30, 32, 50, 67, 69, 84, 97, 117, 201–2, 224, 231, 246, 257–59
Stills, William, 182
Stone, Kate, 223–24
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 111, 227, 264
Stuart, Gilbert, 1–4, 7, 12, 19, 24–26, 144, 277n4
George Washington, 1, 2, 3–4, 18, 80, 97
Stuart, Martha, 191–92, 204, 249, 250–51
Stubbs, George, 129
Stuckey, Sterling, 278n21
Sturt, George, 33–34, 35
subjectivity: aesthetic actions for expressing, 6, 7–8, 11
consumption of goods as expression of, 241
of enslaved people, 6, 11, 15, 20, 26, 144–49, 184, 186, 188, 203, 215
geographic intelligence and, 188
portraits invested with, 225–27
portraiture associated with, 20, 26, 144–45, 147, 149–52
and soul value, 144–49
in white Southern portraits, 225
viewership as means to, 184, 186. See also humanity
sugar, 8–9, 8, 23, 77, 124, 128, 132–36, 135, 139, 147, 156–59, 165, 175, 243, 267
Sully, Thomas, 140, 150, 182, 242, 243, 300n41
Abby Ann King Turner Van Pelt, 142, 143, 160
Charles Izard Manigault, 243–44, 244, 257
Lady with a Harp: Eliza Ridgely, 175, 176, 177
Mrs. John Hill Wheeler and Her Two Sons, 182, 182, 191
Summers, W. See Hunt, Charles sumptuary laws, 193
superstition, 201, 203, 209–10, 251
surveillance, 152, 188, 195–96, 200, 242. See also gaze
T
Tan-che-qua, 53
Taylor, Isaac, 164
Tennessee, slavery in, 157–58
Theus, Jeremiah: Gabriel Manigault, 228, 228, 229, 240, 258
Mrs. Gabriel Manigault (Ann Ashby Manigault), 228, 228, 229, 240, 258
Thompson, Krista, 186
Thornton, Mr. and Mrs. Albert, Sr., 272, 273
Thurston, Edward, 1
Thurston, Gardiner, 15
Thurston, Neptune: artistic practice of, 1, 262
artistic sources for, 4–7
enslavement and freedom of, 1, 3, 15
as inspiration for Gilbert Stuart, 1, 3, 25
intended viewers of drawings by, 7–9
nickname of, 15
resistance enacted through portraiture by, 9, 11, 15, 17–18, 26
role of, in art history, 24
satiric meaning in portraits by, 17
tignons, 147, 149, 154, 156
tobacco, 12
Tobacconist (horse), 129
transatlantic slave trade: American reliance on, 104
debates over, 87
ending of, 113
Newport as site for, 2, 11, 15, 18
Thurston’s connection to, 15
Troye, Edward, Tobacconist, with Botts’ Manuel and Botts’ Ben, 129, 130, 136
Trumbull, John, 65
George Washington and William Lee, 80, 81, 82, 120
Tubman, Harriet, 204
Turner, Abby Ann King. See Van Pelt, Abby Ann King Turner
Turner, J. M. W., The Red Room, 215, 217
Twain, Mark, “General Washington’s Negro Body-Servant: A Biographical Sketch,” 117–19
U
Union Army, 134, 218, 220–24, 227, 228, 230, 235, 238–39, 241, 247–50, 254–56, 264, 267
Unionism, 158, 193
United States: political meanings of slavery in, 22, 104
racial construction of American identity, 3
slavery intrinsic to formation of, 22, 90, 103–4. See also American Revolution
Universal Magazine, 62
Unknown artists: Bernard Duchamp Family Mourning Portrait, 149, 150
fire screen, 221
A Good Likeness of Sancho, a Negro, 98, 99
Portrait of a Ship’s Steward, 107, 107
Portrait of a Woman of Color with Tignon, 148, 149
Portrait of Charles Carter of Cleve, 226, 227
The Resurrection of Henry Box Brown, 16–17, 16
Scene in the Parlor of Mr. Barnwell’s House at Beaufort, South Carolina, 246, 246
Virginian Luxuries, 89–90, 89, 94
Washington Family (lithograph after Edward Savage), 116
A Young Coachman (John Meller’s Black Coachboy), 128, 129
Unknown makers: turned armchair, 156, 156
wedding dress, 154, 154
Unknown photographers: Daphne Williams, Age about 100, 172, 173
Louisa Sidney Martin (photographic crayon portrait after), 123, 163–64, 273
Louis Manigault and Captain, His Servant, 235–36, 236
[African American Woman holding a white Child], 235, 235
Portrait of Mauma Mollie—Monticello, Florida, 131, 131, 149, 154
Upton, Dell, 188
U.S. Constitution, 103, 223
V
Van Berckel, Franco Petrus, 108
Van Pelt, Abby Ann King Turner, 142, 143, 160
Van Pelt, Peter, 143
Van Thiel, Pieter J. J., 119
Vasari, Giorgio, 3
Velázquez, Diego, 40
viewership: assumptions about Black people’s capacity for, 23, 175, 197, 199–203, 210–11, 224, 247, 255
Black people as counterpublic for art produced by whites, 46, 213–14
conditions for enslaved people’s, 205–9
in Crafts’s The Bondwoman’s Narrative, 181–88, 194, 200, 203, 205, 207, 210, 213
creativity arising from adverse conditions of, 208–9
Douglass and, 186, 190–91, 194, 209–13, 215
enslaved artists’ intended, 7–8
enslaved people’s, 110, 112, 151, 162, 172–75, 181–217, 243
enslaved people’s consumption of art and, 191–94
enslaved people’s skill and practice in, 205, 209
enslaved women’s, 23–24, 203–4, 209, 211
freedom associated with, 186, 204, 209, 211, 215
and ghost value, 150–51
humanity linked to, 20, 210–12
imaginary, 209–10, 213–15
isolating circumstances of, 212–13
material interactions with, 189–90, 206
negative emotions associated with, 247–50
at New Orleans Cotton Exposition, 162
possession achieved through, 184, 186
resistance enacted through, 23–24, 175, 184, 186–88, 203–4, 209–17
of Savage’s The Washington Family, 100–102, 104–5, 110, 112
shaped by enslavement, 205–6
social status associated with, 197, 200
and soul value, 144–49
subjectivity achieved through, 20, 184, 186
white, 100–102, 104–5, 205–6. See also aesthetic actions; gaze; glance
violence, of enslavers against the enslaved, 17, 89–90, 94, 133–34, 136, 165, 194, 196, 198, 213, 231, 235, 248, 250. See also rape
Vlach, John Michael, 164
Vodun, 251–52
W
Walker, Kara, 186
Walker, William Aiken, 1884 New Orleans Exposition Souvenir Plate, 162–63, 163
Ward, Daniel, 218, 220, 220, 222, 225, 230, 232, 238–41, 243, 250–53, 257–59
Warhol, Andy, 208
Washington, Bushrod, 214
Washington, D.C., plan of, in Savage’s The Washington Family, 92, 93, 97, 98, 102, 115
Washington, George: death of, 111
defacement of portrait of, 289n103
enslaved people’s display of portraits of, 111, 264
as enslaver, 4, 14, 23, 72, 84, 88–97, 100–102, 104–5, 108–9, 117, 119–21, 214, 227
government policies of, 104
letter to Clement Biddle, 95–96, 96
on peace medal, 97–98, 97
in Portman’s family portrait, 86
portrait sittings, 74
protection of artifacts associated with, 255–56
reputation and legacy of, 4, 91–92, 111–13, 117–18, 121, 214
Savage’s group portrait of, 23, 72, 73, 74–77, 74, 75, 80, 82–88, 83, 91–98, 101–6, 110–12, 118–21
and slavery, 75
slavery’s role in America supported by, 75, 90, 92, 104
on social decorum, 62
Stuart’s portrait of, 1, 2, 3, 18, 80, 97
Trumbull’s portrait of, 80, 81, 82
and Washington, D.C., 92, 93, 97, 98, 102–3
will made by, 88–89
Washington, John Augustine, III, 214
Washington, Martha, 72, 75, 88–89, 91, 93, 94, 102–3, 105, 108, 111
watch fob, 106–8, 107
Wayne, Anthony, 110
wedding dress, 154, 154
Wedgwood, Josiah, 86
West, Benjamin, 33, 41, 48, 55, 65, 71, 87
Arthur Middleton, His Wife Mary Izard, and Their Son Henry Middleton, 218, 219, 227, 257
Death of General Wolfe, 110
Penn’s Treaty with the Indians, 110
West, Roger, 106, 108, 110
West Central African artists, 5
Wheatley, John and Susannah, 43
Wheatley, Mary, 43
Wheatley, Phillis, 43–44, 45, 46, 70, 213
Wheeler, Ellen, 182, 182, 191
Wheeler, John Hill, 181
Wheeler family, 194, 213
whipping. See violence
White, Julia, 254
whiteness/white supremacy: Black subjectivities suppressed by, 19
portraiture as vehicle for, 9–10, 20–22, 26, 179–81, 183, 190, 256, 258, 276
reinscribing of, 24
Savage’s The Washington Family and, 75–76, 93, 95, 102–3, 106
“scientific” underpinnings of, 32, 198–99
stereotypes as means of reinforcing, 3, 26
in transactions with African Americans, 255
Whiteside, James and Harriet, 126, 127, 157
white women: as artists, 53, 60, 65
careers of enslaved artists furthered by, 42–44, 69
as sitters for portraits, 66–69
Whiting, Anthony, 94
Whitman, Walt, 150
Wickstead, Philip, Benjamin and Mary Pusey, 189, 190
Wilberforce, William, 87
Williams, Daphne, 172, 173, 174, 188–89, 203, 205, 215, 217, 267
Williams, Lucy, 101
Williams, Moses, 33, 49–50, 57, 71, 90
Mr. Shaw’s Blackman, 99, 99
Williams, Scarborough, 101
Wilson, William J., “The Afric-American Picture Gallery,” 213–15
Wilton House (William Randolph III plantation), Richmond, Virginia, 177, 177, 200, 201
Winter Quarters, Mississippi, 129
Wolfskill, Phoebe, 269
Wollaston, John, 37, 177, 200
Daniel Ward, 218, 220, 222, 225, 232, 238–41, 243, 250–53, 257–59
women. See enslaved women; white women Wood, Thomas
Waterman, Charles Wilson Fleetwood Jr., 145, 146, 147
Woodard, William E., 271
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 19, 122, 161, 164–66, 172, 174, 203–4, 215, 217, 254–55, 268
World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition (New Orleans, 1885), 161–63
WPA. See Works Progress Administration
Wright, Henry Clarke, 179–80
Wright, Patience, 55–56
Wye House (Edward Lloyd plantation), Talbot County, Maryland, 184, 185, 201, 209, 212
Y
Yorke, Philip, I, 129
Yorke family, 129
Z
Zoffany, Johan Joseph, The Academicians of the Royal Academy, 53, 53