Materials and Techniques

La Camera, Deborah; Macbeth, Rhona; Nichols, Kimberly

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Materials and Techniques

Deborah La Camera and Rhona Macbeth and Kimberly Nichols

Rembrandt’s Journey: Painter · Draftsman · Etcher

Materials and Techniques

Author

Deborah La Camera and Rhona Macbeth and Kimberly Nichols

PublisherMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston

https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00241.009

Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-21080

Materials and Techniques

Deborah La Camera, Rhona Macbeth, and Kimberly Nichols

Paper and Alternative Supports for Prints

European paper. Handmade paper formed on a paper mold consisting of a wooden frame with widely spaced wooden ribs that support a screen of closely spaced parallel wires. The paper mold is dipped into a vat containing fibers beaten from linen and cotton rags suspended in water. In the process of lifting the mold from the vat, paper fibers settle onto the wire screen as the water drains off. Because fewer paper fibers are deposited along the wires of the mold, the finished sheet bears the pattern of the mold. This screen pattern of parallel “laid lines” is best seen in transmitted light, and it gives the paper its name, laid paper. The Dutch did not begin making fine white papers until shortly after Rembrandt’s death. European papers were imported from Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and France throughout his lifetime. Watermarks are formed by attaching wire designs (coats of arms, figures, letters, etc.) to the screen of the paper mold. Fewer paper fibers collect over the wire designs during sheet formation, resulting in thinner areas visible in transmitted light. Study of a sheet’s watermark can provide useful information about the paper’s date and manufacture.

oatmeal (or cartridge) paper. Dutch = kardoes. A coarse, light-brown, or grayish European paper produced from the remnants of the papermaker’s vat and characterized by the presence of unbleached and undigested fibers. It was sold as a packing paper but was not less expensive than fine writing or printing papers. Rembrandt experimented with the tonal and textural effects that could be achieved by its use (see St. Jerome Reading in an Italian Landscape, no. 48, and Jan Asselyn, Painter, no. 87). Oatmeal paper is sometimes confused with the fibrous Indian papers more rarely used by Rembrandt (not included here).

Japanese paper. Handmade paper composed from the inner bark fibers of the gampi, mitsumata, and mulberry plants; it is typically named after the plants from which it is made. Though Japanese papers do not possess a watermark, they may exhibit faint mold impressions from the bamboo screens on which the sheets are formed. They vary from delicate, thin, semitranslucent sheets to thick, sturdy, dense sheets and are highly regarded for their strength and smooth, absorbent surfaces that receive ink well. Gampi paper has a characteristic lustrous sheen and ranges in color from pale greenish yellows to warm yellows and deep golds. Another Asian paper with a cool whitish tone, sometimes referred to as Chinese paper, may be a Japanese paper known as Gasenshi, made in imitation of Chinese calligraphy paper (see Christ Appearing to the Apostles, no. 102). Imported by the Dutch East India Company, Japanese papers appear in Rembrandt’s work beginning in 1647.

vellum. Often used interchangeably with “parchment” to refer to the fine prepared skins of animals, usually sheep, cow, and goat. Vellum in the strictest sense refers to the finest quality parchment made specifically from the skins of young calves. It was exploited for its smooth, absorbent surface, which when used for printing produced rich lines and luminous effects (see Christ Crucified [“The Three Crosses”], no. 169, and The Entombment, no. 157).

Printmaking Terms and Techniques

impression. Any single print taken from a printing plate.

state. Any stage in the development of a printed image during which impressions are pulled. States change only with additional working of the plate (addition or removal of lines and marks).

proof (or trial proof). Any impression pulled before work on the plate is complete.

intaglio. Printmaking processes in which the image is printed from ink-retaining incised or etched lines or grooves in a polished metal plate, typically copper. An incompletely polished plate may retain fine scratches, referred to as polishing scratches. The image is excavated in the plate surface by biting with acid or incising with a sharp-pointed tool. Unwanted lines or grooves in the plate can be reduced by scraping the metal with a sharp knife-like instrument, known as a scraper, and burnishing or smoothing-out the area with a rounded steel tool or burnisher. When the plate is ready to be printed, ink is forced into the incised lines with a dauber and excess ink is wiped from the surface of the plate. Plate tone or surface tone may be obtained, accidentally or deliberately, by incompletely wiping the printing plate so as to leave a film of ink on the surface. Plate tone may be used to create variations in lighting or atmospheric effects. In printing, dampened paper is placed on the surface of the plate together with a felt blanket for padding and the resulting sandwich is passed through a roller-bed press. The pressure of printing forces the paper fibers down into the grooves and draws out the ink. Plate marks are the indentations formed by the edges of the metal plate as it is pressed into the paper during printing. Plate marks often serve as indicators of intaglio printing processes (engraving, drypoint, etching, and mezzotint).

etching. An intaglio printmaking process in which the lines are created by biting or etching the copper plate with acid. The polished surface of the plate is covered with a thin layer of ground, an acid-resistant coating comprised of waxes, gums, and resins. The image is drawn through the ground with a metal point or etching needle, uncovering the metal surface of the plate. The plate is then exposed to acid, which etches the uncovered metal. Early on, Rembrandt applied wax to the perimeter of his printing plates to act as a dam to contain the acid as it was poured onto the plate. Later he may have poured the acid over the inclined plate. The longer the metal is in contact with the acid and the stronger the acid solution, the more deeply and broadly bitten the grooves become and the darker the line will print. Conversely, lines can be made to print lighter than others by stopping out, a method whereby an acid-resistant substance or varnish is applied to areas of the etched plate to prevent lines from being further bitten. Rembrandt occasionally achieved special tonal effects by brushing acid directly onto the exposed surface of the plate (see The Flight into Egypt, nos. 110 and 113). He also employed a mysterious tonal process referred to as etched granular tone or granular bitten tone. The method resulted in a fine pitting of the surface of the plate which, when inked, transferred tiny specks of ink to the paper, producing a delicate granular pattern (see Jan Cornelis Sylvius, no. 71). Accidental overheating can result in fine cracks in the ground, allowing acid to penetrate the ground and etch a crackle pattern into the plate.

drypoint. An intaglio printmaking process in which a line is scratched directly into the copper printing plate with a needle. The needle is held like a pencil and pulled across the surface of the plate, rather than pushed as in engraving. Through the action of incising the metal, the needle throws up fine metal fragments, which form a ridge called burr along the edges of the furrow. The raised burr retains ink and yields a characteristic blurred, velvety effect when printed. The fragile burr wears down quickly under the pressure of printing and the repeated wiping of the plate, and produces relatively few high-quality impressions.

engraving. An intaglio printmaking process in which a burin, or graver, is used to incise lines into a polished copper plate. The burin is a square shaft of steel with one end obliquely cut to a diamond-shaped tip and set into a wooden handle. Holding the burin in the palm of the hand, the engraver forces the sharp tool against the plate while turning the plate with the other hand in the direction of the lines. The burin gouges out slivers of metal to create a neat V-shaped furrow as it is pushed across the surface of the plate. Rembrandt utilized engraving as a supplement to etching rather than as an independent medium.

mezzotint. A subtractive intaglio printmaking process in which a continuous tone is produced by scoring the plate with a rocker, a serrated steel blade with a wide curved edge set into a handle. The rocker is worked across the plate, roughening the surface as desired. The roughened plate retains ink, creating a dark, velvety continuous tone when printed. Light areas are then scraped and burnished from the roughened surface of the printing plate.

Drawing Materials

chalk. A drawing medium derived from naturally occurring composites of clay and colored minerals. Red chalk (sanguine) gains its color from iron oxide or hematite. The proportion of iron oxide to clay content determines the specific hue of the chalk, ranging from a very pale red to a burnt brownish orange. Black chalk is a composite of carboniferous shale and clay. Though its relatively friable nature lends itself well to broad effects, it is also capable, as in Rembrandt’s drawings, of rendering more precise lines.

gall nut ink (or iron gall ink). Ink produced by mixing ground nut galls of oak trees with iron sulfate, followed by the addition of gum arabic as a binding medium. When first mixed, the ink has a purple-black or violet gray color, which gradually darkens to nearly black upon exposure to air. With further aging, the color continues to transform, shifting from cool black to a warm brown hue. Due to the inherent acidity of iron-gall ink, fracturing or perforation of paper is often a consequence of aging (see Sleeping Watchdog, no. 54).

India ink (or black ink, Chinese ink). Ink composed of the soot created from burning oils, resins, or resinous woods, or the charcoal of many kinds of woods mixed with a gum or resin. The mixture is hardened and then molded into a dry ink stick ready to be watered down for use (see Self-Portrait Bust, no. 12).

ink wash. A solution of ink and water applied with a brush to create broad areas of light and shade.

opaque white watercolor. Rembrandt occasionally enhanced the modeling of mass and volume by applying opaque white watercolor to create highlights on his drawings (see Sleeping Watchdog, no. 54). However, he more often used the opaque white medium to correct or edit out lines that he wished to soften or suppress. The medium often becomes more transparent with age, revealing the covered ink lines (see Two Thatched Cottages with Figures at a Window, no. 116, and Three Studies of a Child and One Study of a Woman, no. 102).

prepared paper. Rembrandt prepared some of his sheets of drawing paper with a pale wash applied with a brush to create an overall tone or tint (see Houses on the Schinkelweg, no. 189).

quill pen. A traditional writing or drawing implement fashioned from the large, hollow outer wing feathers of a goose, swan, raven, or crow. The large, primary flight feathers of the bird are plucked, scraped, and hardened by plunging into hot ashes or sand, prior to being cut into a bifurcated pen nib. The quill was valued for its versatility with regard to the width of the point into which it could be cut, and the capacity of the flexible tip to produce sweeping, calligraphic lines.

reed pen. A common ancient writing instrument cut from hollow-barreled grass, including canes and bamboo. The fibrous structure of the reed lends itself best to a blunt nib, which produces short, powerful strokes that resemble brushstrokes more than conventional pen lines. A reed pen can create dense bands of ink when full, or mottled trails when semi-dry (see The Raising of Cross, no. 171, and Noah’s Ark, no. 178).

by Deborah La Camera and Kimberly Nichols

Painting Terms and Techniques

easel. Stand to hold a painting during its execution. In the seventeenth century the most common type of easel was a relatively simple, very stable tripodlike structure. This type of easel had two slightly splayed front legs that were joined by a cross bar and a third leg that was hinged backwards to make the tripod. The front legs had evenly spaced holes into which movable pegs were fitted. The painting could either rest directly on these pegs, or a narrow shelf could be added and the painting placed onto that. For examples of two slightly different seventeenth-century easels, see the small oil painting of The Artist in His Studio (no. 18), and the drawing of the same subject (no. 19).

grinding stone (or grinding slab). A flat surface, usually a slab of granite or porphyry, on which the artist’s paints would be prepared by hand. Dry pigments were combined with a chosen medium (usually a drying oil), and ground together, using a muller (a dome-shaped stone with flat bottom), until they had acquired the properties of a usable paint. In the seventeenth century, a grinding stone, often mounted to a heavy block of wood, was a standard piece of equipment in a painter’s studio (see the oil painting of The Artist in His Studio, no. 18, and the drawing, no. 19, of the same subject).

palette. A smooth nonporous surface, most commonly a hand-held wooden board with thumbhole, used for setting out and mixing paints. For examples of seventeenth-century palettes, see the painting of The Artist in His Studio (no. 18). The artist holds one palette in his left hand, while two others, of slightly different size and design, are clearly visible hanging on the wall behind him.

palette knife (or painting knife). A knifelike implement with a handle and a blunt metal blade that was either straight-edged or tapered to a rounded point. Initially used as a tool for preparing the oil paint and transferring it to the palette prior to painting. By the middle of the seventeenth century, artists, most notably Rembrandt, were employing the palette knife as a painting tool, using it to apply and manipulate paint, and thereby achieve rich and varied surface effects. For an example of such expressive paint application, see the painting of Flora, no. 204.

maulstick (or mahlstick). From Dutch for “painting stick.” A wooden rod with one end tipped with a small soft round ball of cloth or leather. The maulstick would be held in the hand that was not actively painting while the padded end would lean against the easel or the painting support, thereby providing a stable place for the artist’s hand to rest while painting fine details. For an example of a maulstick, see the painting of The Artist in His Studio (no. 18), and also the drawing of the same subject (no. 19).

panel. A painting support made from one or more wooden planks. In the seventeenth-century Netherlands, oak was the most common type of wood chosen for panel painting. For example, in the painting of The Artist in His Studio (no. 18), itself painted on a small oak panel, the painting on the easel is clearly on a wooden support.

canvas. A painting support made from a woven fabric or cloth. Originally these cloths would have been intended for other uses, such as ship’s sails, mattress covers, etc. The fabric was adapted for use as a painting support by stretching it over a wooden framework called a strainer.

strainer. A wooden framework with fixed (nonexpandable) corners. The strainer was commonly used for stretching canvas prior to the introduction of the keyable stretcher in the mid-eighteenth century.

stretcher. A wooden framework with expandable corners, used for stretching canvas. The keyable stretcher was designed so that its overall size could be expanded by utilizing triangular wedges (keys) placed into slots at its inner corners. “Stretcher” is a term often wrongly used when what is meant is a fixed strainer.

ground. An overall preparatory layer or coating applied to the support to create a more appropriate surface for receiving the paint. These layers could be white or colored, and thus could be used to set the prevailing tone or tint for the subsequent paint layers. Double grounds, where two separate layers (frequently of different colors) were applied were also common.

imprimatura (or primer). A thin layer of paint applied over the ground layer to adjust its overall color or tone.

underdrawing. A preliminary drawing or sketch, made directly on the ground or priming layer, prior to the application of the overlaying paint layers.

oil. The oils used in making oil paint are drying oils, like those made from linseeds or poppy seeds, which will dry naturally when exposed to air and light.

impasto. Paint so thickly applied that it stands up from the painting’s surface in relief.

pentimento. Italian for “repentance” or “correction.” A change made by the artist during the process of painting. These changes can become more visible over time due to an increase in the transparency of the upper layers of paint.

modello. Italian for “model.” A highly detailed drawing, or monochrome painting, created by the artist prior to making the final work (e.g., a print or a painting).

oil sketch. A freely executed study carried out in oil paint. Although an oil sketch can have a preparatory relationship with a more finished work, it can also be created as an independent work of art.

grisaille (and brunaille). French for “gray in gray painting” and “brown in brown painting.” A monochrome painting usually carried out in shades of gray and/or brown.

tondo. Italian for “circle.” A circular painting.

The Structure of a Rembrandt Painting

Wooden panels, stretched canvases, and copper panels are by far the most common supports found on seventeenth-century Dutch paintings. Rembrandt, in his early career in Leiden, seems to have painted almost exclusively on oak panels, although a few small paintings on copper (not in the exhibition) exist from this period. While continuing to paint on wooden supports throughout his career, after moving to Amsterdam (1631–33) Rembrandt increasingly chose to paint on canvas.

As the properties of rough unsealed wood or canvas fabric do not make for a satisfactory painting surface, they were prepared by the application of a ground layer. In the case of a wooden panel, a layer of animal glue and then a thin white ground of animal glue and chalk would be applied and scraped smooth. Lastly a thin coat of oil (usually mixed with a small amount of pigment) would be applied to help seal and tone the absorbent white ground layer. The process for preparing a canvas was somewhat different. The fabric would be stretched over a wooden strainer and then sized with animal glue. Then one or two ground layers, pigments mixed in an oil medium, would be applied. In Rembrandt’s early paintings on canvas there is usually a double ground, consisting of a lower layer of red ochre and an upper layer of lead white and black.

Painting would begin with a monochrome sketch, usually in transparent brown or grayish brown oil paint applied directly to the ground. The composition was first set down in freely brushed contours and then was developed further by laying down broad tones of light and dark, with the same thin brown or gray paint. After this “dead-coloring” stage, the painting would be finished with color applied over the monochrome design. Paint would be applied both thickly and thinly so that in some places the dead-coloring would be completely covered, while in others it would show through.

Finally, after the paint was dry a varnish would be applied. This clear coating was added after all other work was completed, and although its optical properties served to enhance the appearance of the oil paint, it was primarily a protective layer.

by Rhona MacBeth

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